Science - new formatting

Physical Sciences – study of nature and properties of the universe

  • Astronomy

  • Chemistry

  • Geology

  • Meteorology

  • Physics

Biological Sciences – life

  • Botany

  • Zoology

Social sciences – study of humans

  • Psychology

  • Sociology

HYPOTHESIS – tentative solution

  1. Make observation

  2. State problem

  3. Form hypothesis

  4. Test hypothesis

SCIENTIFIC METHOD – to find solution; interprets data

Step 1: identify the problem using 5 senses

  • Always in question form”

    • Specific

    • Measurable

    • Attainable

    • Observable

Step 2: Conduct Research

  • Rrl

Step 3: Hypothesis

  • Educated guess

Step 4: Conduct Experiments

  • Control: standard

  • Experimental

  • Identify variable:

    • DEPENDENT: RESULT

    • INDEPENDENT:

      • CONTROLLED: ALWAYS THE SAME IN EVERY SETUP

      • MANIPULATED: CAN BE DIFFERENT

Step 5: Analysis

  • Accept or reject Ho

Step 6: Conclusion

Kinds of reasoning

  • Deductive: general to specific

    • “All” then specific thing

  • Inductive: specific to general

    • Specific thing then “all”

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

  1. May decimal – pa right

  2. Whole number – pa left

EARTH SCIENCE

GEOSPHERE

Crust – outermost

  • Continental (sial) – crust not covered by ocean

  • Oceanic (sima) – crust under ocean

Transition zone

  • Lithosphere – region of solid rocks; crust and upper solid part of mantle

  • Asthenosphere – semi-solid rocks; rocks begin to melt; divided into soft upper and hard lower layer

  • Mantle – under the crust to 2900 km into center; mostly made of molten rocks

  • Outer core – mostly molten elements (iron and nickel)

  • Inner core – solid light elements (iron and nickel)

  • Tectonic plates – rigid pieces of crust and upper mantle

  • Plate tectonics – large-scale motions of earth’s lithosphere

Continental Drift Theory – earth had a single continent

  • Jigsaw like-fit of continental boundaries and similarities between coastal rock formation between facing continents

  • Pangea is the singular super continent

  • Panthalassa vast ocean of Pangea

Sea-floor spreading – ocean floor extends while two plates move apart

Earthquake – shaking caused by release of tension built up in the plate boundaries

Focus – rocks break under stress and plates shift causing earthquake

Epicenter – center of the quake directly above the focus

Body waves – energy waves that travel underground from focus to surface

  • Primary – FASTEST

  • All medium

  • Particles move in the direction of wave

  • Secondary – can only travel through solid rocks

  • Move perpendicular to direction of wave

  • Surface - SLOWEST

Plate boundaries:

1.       Divergent – plates move away from e/o

2.       Convergent – plates move towards e/o

  • Oceanic-continental – trench

  • Oceanic-oceanic – trench

  • Continental-continental – mountain ranges, volcanoes

3.       Transform – move past e/o

  • Crust is neither created or destroyed

Richter Scale – magnitude of an earthquake using seismograph oscillation

Mercalli Scale – observation of people; not scientific as R.S

Angle of repose – steepest slope a material can be heaped w/o collapsing

WIND MOVEMENT:

Sea breeze – Day; cold air from sea

Land breeze – night; cold air from land

Eclipses

  • when one body comes between the line of sight between two other bodies

  • Solar eclipse - sun - moon - earth

    • every 18 months

    • repeats in the same location every 360 to 410 years

  • Lunar eclipse - sun - earth - moon

    • happens during full moon

  • Umbra – darkest portion of eclipse

  • Penumbra – lighter

  • Antumbra - lightest

VOLCANO – opening where hot gases release from the magma chamber below the surface

  • Cinder cones - build from particles and blobs of congealed lava

  • Composite - steep-sided, symmetrical

  • Shield - built from fluid lava flows

Lahar - mixture of water and rock fragments that flow down volcanoes

  • melted snow and ice

  • long duration rainfall during eruption

  • lake breakout floods

ROCKS

  1. Igneous – lava solidifies

    1. Intrusive: below earth’s surface; crystals

    2. Extrusive: amorphous glass

  2. Sedimentary – rock residues that accumulates overtime and hardens; fossils

    1. Clastic – mechanical weathering debris

    2. Chemical – dissolved materials precipitate from solution

    3. Organic –accumulation of plant or animal debris

  3. Metamorphic – rocks undergo physical and chemical changes due to intense pressure and temperature

Minerals – inorganic solids; defined by its specific chemical composition

  • Hardness – ability to resist being scratched

  • Color

  • Streak – color in its powdered form; shows the true color

  • Density – pattern of atoms

  • Crystalline

  • Cleavage – tendency to break

  • Luster – reflection of light

Soil – fragments of weathering that make up ground

Erosion – transfer of ground materials to another location

Weather disturbances

  • wind movement - hot air is less dense than cold air thus hot air rises and cold air sinks

    • sea breeze - day; hot air from land rises and goes towards the sea

    • land breeze - night; cold air from land goes towards sea

 

STAR

  • massive body of gas that can produce energy through nuclear fusion

  • color depend on the age or temperature of the star

  • life cycle: nebula - main sequence star - red giant - white dwarf - supernova - black hole

  • Red: coolest; blue: hottest

  • Sizes:

    • White dwarf (small) - dying star

    • Main sequence (medium ex. Sun)

    • Giants - main sequence star reach its maximum size and starts to lose energy and become a nebula; can progress into a white dwarf

    • Super giants - when a star born is too massive to be a main sequence star, it becomes this

      • they do not dissipate but explode instead as supernova

  • important concepts:

    • Nebula - immense gas cloud where stars are born

    • Main sequence - star life cycle from its birth to its near death; rapid growth, brightness, and temp

    • Black hole - end result of supernova when all materials of star compress due to gravity creating a dense star (neutron star)

    • Quasars (quasi-stellar radio source) - most energetic and distant galactic nuclei; very luminous and transmit radio waves as red-shift waves

    • Pulsars - neutron star with high magnetic field that its electromagnetic emissions are concentrated at the magnetic poles

BIOLOGY

DNA

  • deoxyribonucleic acid; double helix shape; genetic blueprint; basis for protein production

  • basic unit: nucleotide - composed of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nucleobase

    • Nucleobase:

      • purines - pyrimidines; adenine - thymine; guanine - cytosine

      • a-g ; c-t

RNA

  • ribonucleic acid

  • conjugate of DNA chain; adenine is paired with uracil

  • used in protein production

mRNA STOP CODONS

  • uga, uaa, uag

Protein - building blocks of life

  • basic unit: amino acids composing amino and carboxyl group

Carbohydrates - molecules containing C, H, and O atoms

  1. monosaccharide - one sugar

    1. glucose, fructose, galactose

  2. disaccharide - two sugar

    1. maltose, sucrose, lactose

  3. polysaccharide - three sugar

    1. starch, glycogen

Lipids and Fats - naturally occurring molecules; immiscible in water and dissolved only in fat solvents

CELL THEORY

  • cell is the basic unit of life

  • all organism are made up of one or more cells

  • all cells arise from pre-existing cells

Modern cell theory

  • all cells have the same chemical composition and metabolic activities

  • all basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside cells

  • cell contains hereditary information passed on from cell to cell during cell division

  • cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures

 

Prokaryote: before nucleus

Eukaryote: true nucleus

NUCLEUS

x

/

DNA

/

/

Compartmentalization

x

/

Membrane bound organelles

Non membrane

/

Ribosomes

/

/

 

Organization: cell - tissue - organ - system - organism

Cell Anatomy

  • Plasma Membrane - semi permeable; encloses the cell; made up of phospholipid bilayer; protects

  • Cytoplasm - inside; contains internal organelles and fluid medium; jelly-like

  • Nucleus - central storage of genetic material; command center

    • Nuclear Membrane - enclosure of nucleus

    • Nucleoplasm - inside nucleus

    • Nucleolus - within nucleoplasm; genetic materials are concentrated

    • Nuclear Pore - channels material in and out of nucleus

  • Mitochondrion - powerhouse; produces energy

  • Lysosome - site for internal digestion of food chemicals

  • ER - site of lipid and protein synthesis

  • Golgi Bodies - site for sorting of proteins; site for modification

  • Ribosome - protein synthesis

  • Vacuole - storage for food

  • Centriole - accessory organelle for cell division

Cellular parts only present in plants

  • Cell wall - rigid membrane for additional support and structure

  • Plastids - perform special functions

  • Chloroplast - performs photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll - green pigment

  • Chromoplast - enhances reproduction and propagation

  • Amyloplast - storage of starch and sugar; colorless

Organelles for locomotion

  • Flagellum - tail-like; propulsion

  • Cilia - hair-like; motion

  • Pili - hair-like; directs material to a specific location in the cell; bacterial reproduction

TRANSPORT FOR MATERIALS

  • Active Transport - transfer of substances across the membrane with pumps; requires energy in the form of ATP as transfer is usually opposite and gradient

  • Passive Transport - natural movement of substances; follows the flow of gradient not requiring energy

    • Diffusion - movement of solutes from high to low concentration areas

    • Facilitated Diffusion - movement of solute that is carried by another solute

    • Osmosis - movement of water from low concentration to high concentration

CELL CYCLE

  • Cell Division - cell reproduces by dividing; also known as cytokinesis or cytoplasmic division

  • Stages:

    • Prophase - DNA strands are duplicated and condensed into chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves

    • Metaphase - sister chromatids (duplicated chromosomes) attach to spindle poles and lines up at the equatorial plane

    • Anaphase - Spindle fiber attach to centromeres and chromatids are pulled apart; chromatids are now independent chromosomes

    • Telophase - chromosomes de-condense; nuclear envelop forms around chromosomes; cytoplasmic division occurs; two sets of chromosomes divide into separate cells.

Mitosis

  • cell duplicates once and divides once

    • Asexual reproduction

Meiosis

  • cell duplicates once and divides twice

    • Sexual reproduction

CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY

  1. Replication - DNA is copied for duplication purposes

  2. Transcription - RNA is produced from DNA

    1. mRNA - product of DNA transcription; transported out of the nucleus to another site for protein production; contains message code

    2. tRNA - contains corresponding amino acid dictated by the mRNA code; contains anticodon of mRNA

    3. rRNA - contains part of ribosome where amino acids/proteins are assembled

  3. Translation - process of assembling a protein/polypeptide chain from amino acid/peptide components; dictated by mRNA sequence

    • Codon - code

      • Start codon - AUG

      • Sop codon - UGA, UAA, UAG

METABOLISM

1.       CATABOLISM – break down of substances

  • Cellular respiration

2.       ANABOLISM – build up of substances

  • Photosynthesis - process to produce chemical energy with the use of light energy from the sun

  • light dependent: takes place in thylakoid membrane; ATE, NADPH

  • light independent: calvin cycle; carbohydrates are formed from carbon dioxide process called carbon fixation; CO2, sugar

  • happens during daytime

 

TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE

TAXONOMY

  1. Domain eukarya

  2. Kingdom Animalia

  3. Phylum Chordata

  4. Class Mammalia

  5. Order carnivora;primates

  6. Family Canidae; hominidae

  7. Genus Canis; homo

  8. Species Lupus; sapiens

TYPES OF ORGANISMS

  1. Obligate aerobes  - need oxygen to replicate and survive

  2. Obligate anaerobes – does not need oxygen; oxygen is toxic to them

  3. Facultative – may survive w/wo oxygen

  4. Microaerophiles – only need small amount of oxygen

  5. Aerotolerant – anaerobes that tolerate oxygen but do not replicate

GENETICS

  • study of heredity and variation

  • Heredity: passing of traits from parents to offspring

  • Variation: difference among individuals

Mendelian Law

  • Law of Dominance - if two alleles differ, dominant allele will be fully expressed recessive allele will have no noticeable effect

  • Law of segregation - two alleles segregate during meiosis

  • Law of Independent assortment - pair of alleles segregate independently

Non-Mendelian Law

  • Incomplete Dominance - two dominant allele combine a phenotype that is in between those two alleles. The expressed trait is not characteristic of original allele.

  • Codominance - two dominant allele combine and both characteristics are expressed and discernible

  • Sex-linked - genes are carried by sex chromosomes

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

Autosomal inheritance

  • Autosomal Inheritance - one copy of faulty gene is enough for trait to be expressed

  • Autosomal Recessive - both copies of faulty gene is needed to manifest

Sex-linked inheritance

  • X-linked recessive - mother to son

  • X-linked dominant - father to daughter

  • Y-linked - father to son

KARYOTYPE - microscopic analysis of an entire chromosome complement

  1. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

  2. Edwards Syndrome (Trisomy 18)

  3. Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)

  4. Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)

  5. Turner Syndrome (Monosomy X)

  6. Cri-du-Chat Syndrome (Delition of chromosome 7)

  • 46 chromosomes ang meron sa isang tao

ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

  1. Epithelial Tissue - covers

  2. Connective - protection, storage, support

  3. Muscle - movement

  4. Nervous - responses