4.3 The French Revolution

The French Revolution

I. The Line of Louis

  • Louis XIV (The Sun King)

    • Died in 1715, leaving a significant legacy and ongoing problems for France.

    • His reign lasted for 72 years, characterized by:

    • Lavish constructions like the Palace of Versailles.

    • Costly involvement in the War of Spanish Succession, which drained France's financial resources.

  • Louis XV

    • Became king at the age of five, upholding Absolutism.

    • Lacked the strength and talent of Louis XIV, leading to further weakening of France.

    • His defeat in the Seven Years' War led to significant losses: lives, colonies, and financial stability were all impacted.

    • Died in 1774, deeply unpopular with the French populace.

  • Louis XVI

    • Became king at 19, inheriting a troubled country with considerable emerging issues.

    • One of his significant decisions was to support the Thirteen Colonies in their rebellion against Great Britain, which added to France's debt despite being a success.

II. The Ancien Régime

  • Rule of the Capetian dynasty began with Hugh Capet in the 10th century AD, evolving to significant authority by Louis XVI's reign.

    • The monarchy was the most powerful institution in France.

  • Palace of Versailles

    • Resided by the king, located 15 miles from Paris, supported by thousands of servants.

    • Known for lavish parties, extravagant performances, and elaborate court rituals.

  • Marie Antoinette

    • Daughter of Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, became Queen of France.

    • Known for excessive spending on fashion and entertainment, embracing her privileged status.

    • Became nicknamed “Madame Deficit” due to her reputation, symbolizing France’s growing financial woes.

  • Social structure known as The Ancien Régime (The Old Order):

    • The King and Queen sat at the top, descending through three estates, each having distinct roles.

III. The Three Estates

  • Used to enforce social order, with the first two estates being privileged classes to maintain control.

  • First Estate: The Clergy (0.5%)

    • Dominated by the Catholic Church, which controlled education and healthcare, reinforcing the king's divine rule.

    • Owned 10% of French land, generating income from rents and tithes (a portion of one’s harvest or income from commoners).

    • Exempt from direct taxation, with lower clergy living modestly and high clergy living extravagantly.

  • Second Estate: The Nobility (1.5%)

    • Consisted of hereditary aristocracy and individuals who purchased titles through service.

    • Owned 30% of French land, profiting from the peasants working on it.

    • Held key military, administrative, and judicial positions, rarely paying direct taxes.

    • Only estate allowed to bear arms, emphasizing their superior status.

  • Third Estate: The Commoners (98%)

    • Encompassed the vast majority of the French populace; a diverse group structured as follows:

    • Bourgeoisie

      • The wealthiest and educated segment, including bankers, merchants, and lawyers.

      • Owned 20-25% of land; some were wealthier than lower-ranking nobles but had very little political influence.

    • Sans-Culottes

      • Urban workers, named for their lack of aristocratic trousers (breeches), symbolizing their lower status.

      • Experienced crowded, unsanitary living conditions; relied on low and unstable wages.

    • Peasantry

      • Largest and poorest group, living as farmers/sharecroppers in rural areas; land ownership was mostly unprofitable.

      • Although serfdom was abolished, many still worked under local lords, facing the heaviest tax burdens despite their poverty.

IV. Meeting of the Estates General

  • By 1789, France faced enormous debt. King Louis XVI's attempts at tax reforms were resisted by the nobility, which refused to relinquish their privileges.

  • A famine had recently ravaged the country, causing grain shortages and soaring food prices.

  • Louis XVI convened the Estates General, an advisory body to the king, which had not met for 175 years due to the growing poverty, hunger, and unrest in the populace.

    • Each estate held only one vote; as the Third Estate represented the majority of the population, this system greatly disadvantaged them.

    • The Third Estate consistently faced increasing taxation while their proposals went ignored; change was essential.

  • Members of the Third Estate, influenced by Enlightenment ideals, declared themselves the National Assembly.

    • They believed they were the rightful representatives of the people, contrary to the Ancien Régime.

  • King Louis XVI locked the National Assembly out of Versailles; they convened at a nearby tennis court, vowing not to leave until they created a new constitution.

V. Storming the Bastille

  • As the National Assembly continued to meet defiantly, unrest grew both at Versailles and in Paris.

  • In response to the rising tensions, Louis called royal troops to maintain order; this created a perception among the people that the king intended to suppress reform.

  • Frustrated sans-culottes in Paris, driven by hunger and poverty, felt a compulsion to act against the king's show of force.

    • They marched to the Bastille, an old fortress and prison, looking for arms and gunpowder stockpiled there.

  • After failed negotiations, a mob stormed the Bastille, overwhelming the defenders and killing its governor, parading his head on a pike.

  • In light of the storming, King Louis XVI withdrew his troops and recognized the National Assembly.

  • The Storming of the Bastille became a symbol of resistance against tyranny and marked the official start of the French Revolution.

    • Subsequently, July 14 is celebrated as Bastille Day in France.

VI. The Great Fear

  • Post-Bastille, revolutionaries feared retribution from the king; rumors circulated that he and the nobility were conspiring to crush the revolution.

  • This prompted widespread revolt among peasants, terrified of losing their property or lives.

    • They targeted local lords, looted manors, destroyed feudal contracts, and seized land.

    • Those supporting the nobility faced public humiliation, beatings, or death. Many nobles fled France as émigrés, contributing to the unraveling of the Old Order.

  • In a bid to restore order, the National Assembly, composed primarily of bourgeois landowners, passed a decree abolishing feudal privileges.

    • This decree eliminated feudal dues owed to nobles and tithes owed to the clergy.

    • Nobles lost their rights to impose taxes or legislate independently.

  • The abolition of feudalism led to the declaration that all French citizens would be subject to the same laws and taxes.

    • Revolutionary momentum surged further.

VII. France’s New Declaration

  • A month after the Revolution sparked, the National Assembly enacted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which established fundamental principles for a new France.

    • Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and foundational American documents (e.g., Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights).

  • The Declaration emphasized three core ideals:

    • Liberty (Liberté):

    • The demand for freedom from an absolute monarchy and the acknowledgment that all men hold unalienable rights (speech, religion, press, assembly).

    • Equality (Égalité):

    • The assertion that all men are equal under the law, not categorized by estate, deriving authority from the people's will and not from the king.

    • Fraternity (Fraternité):

    • Advocacy for brotherhood and unity among citizens, transcending class distinctions; a rallying cry for collective efforts in support of France.

    • The Declaration became a unifying call for revolutionary efforts, paving the way for broader transformation in France.

VIII. Women’s March on Versailles

  • While the Declaration largely neglected women's issues, the lack of food heavily impacted women.

    • Continued widespread hunger and starvation affected urban areas, compelling women to act as caregivers and providers for their children.

    • Thousands of dissatisfied women, alongside men and members of the National Guard, protested in Paris due to grain shortages, protesting at Versailles.

  • The mob stormed the palace courtyard, demanding bread and the king's cooperation.

    • Louis conceded, providing food and signing the Declaration; however, resentment persisted.

    • Some broke into the palace and attempted to kill Marie Antoinette, though she managed to escape.

    • A false attribution of the phrase “Let them eat cake!” was made to her, lacking any evidence she ever uttered it.

  • The mob insisted that Louis and his family leave Versailles to return to Paris.

    • This marked an increasing transfer of power to the people.

IX. Challenging the Church

  • As the monarchy and Second Estate faced losses in power, the First Estate (Clergy) still held significant authority.

  • To bring the Church under state control, the National Assembly passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy:

    • Clergy were required to take an oath of loyalty to France over the authority of the Pope.

    • Bishops and priests were to be elected by citizens (including non-Catholics), diverging from the previous appointment by the Church.

    • Church properties were seized and sold to address France's financial crisis.

  • The Pope condemned this legislation, labelling it as heretical, calling for clergy to refuse the oath.

    • Those refusing faced persecution, exile or even death.

  • While revolutionaries aimed to reduce the Church’s power, many citizens, particularly peasants, viewed these reforms as assaults on their faith, creating a growing divide between urban revolutionaries and rural populations.

X. Flight of the Monarchy

  • By 1791, the National Assembly completed a new constitution, establishing a constitutional monarchy:

    • Only property-owning men could vote for Legislative Assembly representatives, who would enact laws and govern the state.

    • The king’s powers were greatly curtailed; he lost control of military, taxation, and judicial authority and could no longer claim divine right to rule.

  • Living in Paris under strict conditions, Louis and Marie were discontent, isolated, and increasingly desperate to revert reversible changes brought by the Revolution.

    • Disguised as commoners, they attempted to flee from the Tuileries Palace to Austria's territory.

    • They were apprehended just one day before reaching the border and escorted back to Paris.

  • This flight of the monarchy led many revolutionaries to perceive Louis XVI as an enemy, possibly even a traitor.

XI. Fall of the Régime and Rise of the Republic

  • Neighboring European monarchies observed the French Revolution with mounting concern.

    • Austria and Prussia threatened conflict if King Louis XVI's authority was not restored. Revolutionary France refused to comply, leading to war.

  • Amid the onset of war and looming fears that Louis was in collusion with external enemies to regain his power, tens of thousands of sans-culottes stormed the Tuileries Palace, where the royal family remained.

    • Fierce fighting ensued, resulting in hundreds of deaths; Louis and his family fled to the Legislative Assembly seeking refuge.

  • Revolutionary sentiments had intensified, making it evident that the constitutional monarchy could not withstand the crisis.

    • The Legislative Assembly arrested Louis XVI and dissolved itself, leading to the formation of the National Convention.

    • The first act of the National Convention was to eliminate the monarchy.

    • Louis XVI and his family were imprisoned; the king was no longer considered king but rather Citizen Capet, as he awaited his fate.

    • With this, the Kingdom of France ceased to exist—ushering in the formation of the French Republic.