Comprehensive Study Notes on the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821)

Outbreak of the Insurrection and Hidalgo's Early Campaign (1810)

• Initial Insurgent Movement:

  • From Atotonilco, insurgent forces marched toward San Miguel el Grande, which surrendered without armed resistance.
  • The movement was joined by numerous civilians and the queen's dragon regiment (Regimiento de Dragones de la Reina), expanding the insurgent force to $30\,000$ men.
  • Leadership structure was formally assigned: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was designated as Captain General (capitán general), and Ignacio Allende received the rank of Lieutenant General (teniente general).

• Royalist Mobilization:

  • In Mexico City, Viceroy Francisco Venegas organized an army response to counter the rebellion, deploying military columns from Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Guadalajara, and Mexico City.
  • Félix María Calleja marched out with royalist troops from San Luis Potosí, while Roque Abarca commanded forces setting out from Guadalajara.

• Ecclesiastical Response:

  • On September 24, 1810, Manuel Abad y Queipo, the Bishop of Michoacán, issued a decree declaring Hidalgo and his associates excommunicated.
  • Archbishop and former viceroy Francisco Javier Lizana denounced Hidalgo as a precursor to the Antichrist and urged Catholic parishioners not to be misled by the insurgent leader.

• Advance on Guanajuato:

  • Marching through Celaya, the insurgent army targeted Guanajuato, Nueva España's wealthiest mining center and primary cultural hub.
  • Intendant Juan Antonio Riaño was ordered to surrender the city, but refused and requested urgent military aid from Félix María Calleja.

The Siege of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas and the Legend of El Pípila

• Fortification of the Alhóndiga:

  • Intendant Riaño selected the regional grain warehouse, known as the Alhóndiga de Granaditas, as the stronghold to resist the insurgent siege.
  • Insurgent forces surrounded and assaulted the structure. Intendant Riaño was killed in the early stages of combat.

• The Heroic Figure of El Pípila:

  • The breach of the Alhóndiga's main entry is traditionally attributed to a miner named Juan José de los Reyes Martínez Amaro, nicknamed El Pípila.
  • According to tradition, he strapped a flat stone slab onto his back to deflect rifle fire while crawling toward the main wooden entrance to ignite it with fire and pitch.
  • Historical documentation regarding his individual identity and action remains debated, with alternative historical records indicating that a collective group of miners set fire to the entrance.
  • The narrative of El Pípila gained widespread national recognition in later decades, establishing him as a patriotic hero of Mexican independence.

• Sack of the Fortress and Reorganization:

  • Following the destruction of the door, insurgents overran the Alhóndiga, resulting in widespread looting and retaliatory violence by indigenous combatants against Spanish occupants, which Hidalgo was unable to quell.
  • Once control was restored, Hidalgo designated local civil authorities and established an insurgent Mint (Casa de Moneda) in Guanajuato.

Movement to Valladolid, Anti-Slavery Decrees, and Monte de las Cruces

• Departure to Valladolid and Meeting at Indaparapeo:

  • Hidalgo departed Guanajuato with his army toward Valladolid.
  • At Indaparapeo, Hidalgo met with his former student, José María Morelos y Pavón, who initially volunteered to serve as army chaplain.
  • Hidalgo commissioned Morelos to lead the uprising across the southern regions of New Spain and capture the strategic port of Acapulco to secure maritime access for the movement.

• Abolition Decree of October 19, 1810:

  • Issued by Hidalgo in Valladolid, this decree officially abolished slavery and prohibited the slave trade under penalty of death.
  • The decree abolished caste tribute payments (tributos de las castas) and formally outlawed military looting.

• Crown and Church Countermeasures:

  • Viceroy Venegas posted substantial monetary rewards, titles, and public honors for the capture or death of Hidalgo, Allende, and Juan Aldama.
  • The Inquisition initiated formal judicial proceedings and issued charges against the leaders of the uprising.

• Battle of Monte de las Cruces (October 30, 1810):

  • Insurgent forces engaged and defeated royalist units led by Torcuato Trujillo.
  • Despite defeating royalist forces at the doorstep of the capital, the insurgent army suffered from extreme disorganization, lack of formal discipline, tactical inexperience, and shortages of firearms.
  • Hidalgo chose not to order an assault on Mexico City, retreating toward the west instead. Allende advocated for structured military tactics, whereas Hidalgo viewed strict military governance as incompatible with an improvised mass popular movement.

Nueva Galicia, Government in Guadalajara, and Strategic Defeats

• Expansion to Guadalajara and Zacatecas:

  • José Antonio "El Amo" Torres spearheaded the independentist campaign in Nueva Galicia, securing Guadalajara and preparing for Hidalgo's arrival.
  • Hidalgo made a formal entry into Guadalajara, while independentist uprisings expanded into the Intendancy of Zacatecas.

• Royalist Massacres and Retaliation:

  • Insurgent contingents suffered a tactical defeat at Aculco. Royalist forces reoccupied Guanajuato and conducted severe retaliatory massacres against civilian populations for having supported the insurgents.
  • The Archbishop reissued formal excommunication decrees against Hidalgo and all participating insurgent followers.

• Establishment of the First Insurgent Government (December 10, 1810):

  • In Guadalajara, Hidalgo organized the first official insurgent government administration.
  • He promulgated decrees reiterating the abolition of slavery, repealing tribute collection laws, eliminating required usage of stamped paper (papel sellado), and abolishing state monopolies (estancos) on gunpowder, tobacco, and basic goods.

• Battle of Puente de Calderón and Shift in Command:

  • Royalist armies under Félix María Calleja inflicted a total defeat on the main insurgent forces at the Battle of Puente de Calderón.
  • Royalist forces reoccupied Guadalajara, forcing Hidalgo to retreat north toward Aguascalientes.
  • Internal disputes over operational failures led Allende to strip Hidalgo of military command, holding him directly accountable for the losses.

Capture, Trials, and Executions at Baján and Chihuahua

• Retreat to the North:

  • Hidalgo and Allende retreated from Zacatecas to Saltillo, intending to enter the United States to procure military supplies and arms.
  • Before departing, they designated Ignacio López Rayón as supreme military commander and head of the insurgent government.

• Betrayal at Norias de Baján (March 21, 1811):

  • While traveling north, the insurgent leaders were ambushed at the Wells of Baján (Acatita de Baján) in Coahuila by royalist commander Ignacio Elizondo, who had executed a counter-revolutionary plot.
  • Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama, Mariano Hidalgo, Mariano Abasolo, Mariano Jiménez, and numerous officers were captured and held in harsh confinement.

• Judicial Proceedings and Sentences:

  • The prisoners were moved to Chihuahua for trial. Mariano Abasolo was spared execution, sentenced to life imprisonment, and stripped of his personal assets.
  • Hidalgo was subjected to two trials: an ecclesiastical trial and a civil/ordinary trial.
  • During the ecclesiastical trial, Hidalgo was formally degraded from his priestly status. Prior to his unfrocking, he spent extended periods in prayer.
  • In the ordinary civil trial, Hidalgo was convicted of high treason, murder, and rebellion, receiving the death penalty. Prior to execution, he drafted a document retracting his actions and asking forgiveness from God and society (allegations linking him to Freemasonry lack documentary proof).

• Executions and Public Display:

  • Defecting royalist officers who joined the revolt were shot by firing squad.
  • Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were executed first. Hidalgo was executed by firing squad on July 30, 1811, exhibiting notable composure.
  • The decapitated heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were transported to Guanajuato and suspended in iron cages from the four outer corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas as a public deterrent.
  • Their physical remains were subsequently relocated to the Column of Independence (Columna de la Independencia) in Mexico City.

Organizing the Insurgency: López Rayón and Morelos's Southern Campaigns (1810–1813)

• Establishment of the Zitácuaro Center:

  • Following the capture of the primary leaders, Ignacio López Rayón and José Antonio "El Amo" Torres abandoned Saltillo and established a command base in Zitácuaro to reorganize the revolutionary movement.

• First Campaign of Morelos (November 1810 – May 1811):

  • José María Morelos y Pavón initiated operations in the South, besieging Acapulco in November 1810 with $3\,000$ men.
  • He was joined by the Galeana brothers: Hermenegildo, Pablo, and Juan José Galeana.
  • Failing to reduce Acapulco's defenses initially, Morelos withdrew to Tecpán.
  • In May 1811, Morelos captured Chilpancingo, where Leonardo Bravo and his sons (Víctor, Nicolás, and Miguel Bravo) enlisted.
  • Moving to Tixtla, Vicente Guerrero joined the army, followed by priest Mariano Matamoros in Taxco.

• Second Campaign of Morelos (1811–1812):

  • Morelos captured Chiautla and executed royalist chief Mateo Misitu.
  • He partitioned his army into three operational divisions:
    1. First division under Miguel Bravo, dispatched to Oaxaca.
    2. Second division under Hermenegildo Galeana, sent toward Taxco.
    3. Third division under Morelos's direct command, operating as a mobile strike force.
  • By January 1812, Galeana controlled the Toluca Valley (Valle de Toluca). Morelos captured Tenancingo and moved into Cuautla, encircling Mexico City and severing supply routes.

• Siege of Cuautla (1812):

  • The viceregal administration deployed Félix María Calleja to break the blockade at Cuautla.
  • The insurgent defense of Cuautla endured a months-long siege, drawing praise for bravery from royalist historian Lucas Alamán.
  • Morelos broke through the siege lines, dispersed his forces, and reassembled them at Chiautla.
  • Insurgents captured Huajuapan and secured Tehuacán, controlling key communication lines between Puebla, Oaxaca, and Veracruz.

• Third Campaign and Capture of Acapulco (1812–1813):

  • When royalist authorities in Mexico City executed Leonardo Bravo, Morelos ordered the execution of $300$ royalist prisoners in reprisal; however, Nicolás Bravo refused to execute the order and released the captives.
  • Morelos captured Orizaba and burned state tobacco reserves, inflicting critical economic losses on the colonial treasury.
  • By late November 1812, insurgents took Oaxaca, securing broad control over southern and central New Spain.
  • Between April and August 1813, Morelos conducted the siege of Fort San Diego (Fuerte de San Diego) and captured the port of Acapulco, completing his military objective.

Political Organization: The Congress of Chilpancingo and "Sentimientos de la Nación"

• Assembly of the Congress:

  • Ignacio López Rayón organized the Junta de Zitácuaro (with Morelos serving as a board member/vocal), advocating for a unified national governing council.
  • This initiative led to the Congress of Chilpancingo, convened on September 13, 1813, featuring delegates from Guadalajara, México, Veracruz, and Oaxaca.

• Proclamation of "Sentimientos de la Nación":

  • On September 13, 1813, Morelos presented his foundational political document, Sentimientos de la Nación ("Sentiments of the Nation"), to the delegates.
  • The document established principles of national sovereignty, absolute independence from Spain, complete abolition of slavery and caste distinctions, and constitutional rule.

• Executive Titles:

  • Congress named Morelos Generalísimo and head of the Executive Power.
  • Morelos formally rejected the aristocratic title Alteza Serenísima ("Serene Highness") offered by congressmen, adopting instead the title Siervo de la Nación ("Servant of the Nation").

Decline, Capture of Morelos, and Guerrilla Resistance (1815–1819)

• Capture and Execution of Morelos:

  • As royalist forces intensified pressure, the Congress was forced to relocate continuously alongside Morelos's army.
  • En route to Tehuacán to reorganize insurgent forces, Morelos was surprised by royalist troops at Tesmalaca and defeated in battle.
  • Morelos was taken to Mexico City, tried, degraded from the priesthood, and sentenced to death.
  • On December 22, 1815, Morelos was executed by firing squad at San Cristóbal Ecatepec.

• State of the Insurgency in 1816:

  • By 1816, insurgent forces numbered approximately $27\,000$ men, but only $9\,000$ possessed functional firearms.
  • The death of Morelos fragmented the central command structure, reducing the uprising to localized guerrilla operations.

• The Expedition of Francisco Javier Mina and Fray Servando Teresa de Mier (1817):

  • Fray Servando Teresa de Mier, an exiled Mexican liberal priest living in London, allied with Francisco Javier Mina, a Spanish liberal military officer who had fought against the French invasion of Spain.
  • Mina and Fray Servando organized an expeditionary force to support Mexican independence, landing at Soto la Marina with $400$ men in 1817 and winning several tactical victories.
  • Royalist armies overwhelmed the garrison at Soto la Marina. Fray Servando was captured and sent to the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa and later transferred to the prisons of the Inquisition.
  • Mina was captured and executed by firing squad in front of the Fuerte de los Remedios on November 11, 1817.

• Guerrilla Phase and Royalist Pardons:

  • Following Mina's death, royalist forces retook critical territories and captured insurgent leader Nicolás Bravo.
  • Active armed resistance survived primarily under Guadalupe Victoria in Veracruz and Vicente Guerrero alongside Pedro Ascencio in the southern mountains.
  • Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca offered general pardons (indultos), which many exhausted insurgent veterans accepted. Lacking a permanent location, the insurgent Congress dissolved.

Political Shifts, the Constitution of Cádiz, and La Profesa

• Ideological Divide (1816–1819):

  • The conflict settled into an ideological and military standoff between monarchical loyalists, represented by Spanish army colonel Agustín de Iturbide, and republican insurgent remnants led by Vicente Guerrero.

• External Factor — The Constitution of Cádiz (1812):

  • Drafted in 1812 by the Spanish Cortes in Cádiz during the Peninsular War, this liberal constitution established national sovereignty, restricted royal absolutism, guaranteed press freedom, and limited Church property acquisition.
  • In 1814, King Fernando VII returned to Spain, abolished the Constitution of Cádiz, dissolved the Cortes, re-established absolute monarchy, and persecuted liberal factions.

• Liberal Revolution of 1820 and Viceregal Impact:

  • A liberal revolt in Spain forced Fernando VII to restore the 1812 Constitution of Cádiz in 1820.
  • Viceroy Apodaca in Mexico City was compelled to swear allegiance to the restored constitution, leading to the suppression of the Inquisition, convocation of municipal elections, restriction of clerical privileges, and dissolution of religious orders.

• The Conspiracy of La Profesa (Conspiración de La Profesa):

  • High clergy, conservative elites, and royalist aristocrats opposed the anti-clerical liberal reforms imposed by Spain.
  • Conspirators assembled secretly at the Templo de La Profesa in Mexico City; key leaders included priest Matías de Monteagudo, Inquisitor Tirado, and Bataller (President of the Audiencia).
  • The group resolved to proclaim independence from Spain to establish an independent absolute monarchy, preserving conservative class and Church privileges.
  • They selected Agustín de Iturbide to command royalist military forces in the South and eliminate Vicente Guerrero.

Iturbide's Campaign, the Plan de Iguala, and Consummation of Independence (1820–1821)

• Military Stagnation in the South:

  • In December 1820, Iturbide launched an offensive against southern insurgents but suffered repeated defeats at the hands of Pedro Ascencio and Vicente Guerrero.
  • Realizing the military impracticability of defeating the guerrilla resistance, Iturbide altered his strategy, proposing a political alliance with Guerrero backed by criollo landholders, royalist troops, and the clergy.

• Negotiations and the Abrazo de Acatempan:

  • Iturbide conducted extensive communications with Guerrero, local military commanders, and Mexican delegates.
  • Reconciliation was formalized through the historical encounter known as the Abrazo de Acatempan (Hug of Acatempan), unifying royalist units and insurgent guerrillas into a single military coalition.

• The Plan de Iguala (February 24, 1821):

  • Authored by Iturbide, printed in Puebla, and formally proclaimed in Iguala on February 24, 1821, the Plan de Iguala established the Army of the Three Guarantees (Ejército Trigarante).
  • The plan was structured upon three core guarantees (Tres Garantías):
    1. Religión: Maintenance of Roman Catholicism as the sole official religion of the state.
    2. Independencia: Complete political independence from Spain.
    3. Unión: Full civil equality and integration between all social groups, native populations, European-born Spaniards, and American-born criollos.