AP Language and Composition: Shared Glossary and Study Guide

Figures of Speech and Rhetorical Terms

Hyperbole: A figure of speech and rhetorical device that uses extreme, intentional exaggeration to emphasize a point, evoke strong feelings, or create a humorous effect.
Imagery: The use of vivid, descriptive language or figurative language (metaphors, similes) to create mental images, sensory experiences, and impressions in literature and art.
Oxymoron: A word or phrase that appears to be contradictory. They are often used to convey complex emotions or irony.
Irony: A sharp contrast between what is expected and what actually occurs. It showcases the difference between appearance and reality often making for humorous situations. There are $3$ main types of Irony: - Verbal Irony - Situational Irony - Dramatic Irony
Paradox: A seemingly absurd or self-contradictory statement or proposition that when investigated or explained may prove to be well founded or true.
Personification: The attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something nonhuman, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.
Pun: A joke exploiting the different possible meanings of a word or the fact that there are words which sound alike but have different meanings.
Cliche: A cliche is a common phrase or story arc which has typically lost their original impact due to its overuse.
Epithet: An epithet is a word or phrase used to describe an important and recurring quality that something has. This word can be a nickname/replacement word, title or widely accepted characteristic and is used to enhance imagery and understanding.
Euphemism: A word or phrase that is used to describe a situation or replace a word that is seen as too intense. These replacements often sugarcoat harsh situations or brush over important things.
Analogy: Creates a comparison between two unrelated things to highlight a shared characteristic, purpose, or structure, used to explain a complex or unfamiliar idea.
Metaphor: A figurative language term that directly compares two unlike things by stating one is the other, enhancing description without using ‐like‑ or ‐as‑.
Extended Metaphor: Often used to develop a single, detailed comparison between two unlike things across multiple lines, paragraphs, or the entirety of the idea.
Simile: Similes are a type of figurative language that directly compares two unlike things, resulting in a vivid imagery or emphasizes a point using connecting words such as ‐like‑, ‐as‑, or ‐than‑.
Conceit: Conceit is elaborate, unconventional, and often surprising; a metaphor or simile that compares two vastly different things, designed to engage the reader’s intellect. - In similar terms: A conceit is a type of an extended metaphor that is developed to the kind of environment through imagery.
Apostrophe: An exclamatory figure of speech where the speaker abruptly breaks off from addressing the audience to directly address an absent person, abstract concept, or inanimate object. - In simple terms: Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which the speaking is addressing someone who is not present or can’t physically respond. It is a way of expressing intense emotion.
Synesthesia: A literary device in which one type of sense is described using terms from another sense. In simple words, it mixes the senses (‐sight‑, ‐sound‑, ‐taste‑, ‐touch‑, ‐smell‑) in descriptions to create vivid, imaginative, and emotional imagery.
Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole, or the whole is used to represent a part.
Metonymy: A figure of speech where a thing is referred to by something closely related to it, not a part of it.
Understatement: A figure of speech where something is deliberately presented as being less important, serious, or intense than it actually is. It is often used for humor, irony, or subtle emphasis.
Litotes: A special type of understatement that expresses an idea by using a negative of the opposite (double negative or ‐not bad‑ structure). It is often used to emphasize something in a subtle way.

Diction and Style

Connotation: The act of suggesting a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or describes.
Denotation: The direct specific meaning as distinct from an implied or associated idea.
Pedantic: An overly formal writing style that focuses excessively on minor details, rules, or the display of knowledge.
Simple (Informal Diction): The use of clear, basic, and everyday words structured in straightforward sentences to communicate directly without trying to impress.
Monosyllabic: Words consisting of only one syllable.
Polysyllabic: Words consisting of multiple syllables.
Euphonious: Words consisting of only one syllable that produce a harmonious, pleasant, or melodious sound.
Cacophonous: Words containing harsh, sharp, or discordant sounds that are unpleasant to the ear.
Literal: The primary or strict meaning of words without symbolic details.
Figurative: The use of words in a way that deviates from its literal meaning, which creates a more imaginary effect. It compares ideas indirectly to other concepts.
Active: A style where the subject (usually a character) performs the action of the verb directly, placing them at the heart of the sentence.
Passive: A style where the character is being affected by the action of the verb.
Overstated: Uses exaggeration or makes something seem bigger, more intense, or more important than it really is.
Understated: Makes something seem less important, serious, or intense than it actually is. Often subtle or dry.
Colloquial: Casual, everyday language people use in conversation. Can include slang or informal phrases.
Formal: More proper, structured, and professional language. Often used in essays, speeches, or official writing.
Slang: Specialized language or technical terminology used by a specific profession, trade, or group that is often difficult for outsiders to understand.
Jargon: Specialized language or technical terminology used by a specific profession, trade, or group that is often difficult for outsiders to understand.

Miscellaneous Rhetorical Devices and Grammar Review

Allusion: A brief and indirect reference to a person, place or event that the audience is expected to know.
Ambiguity: The intentional or unintentional presence of multiple meanings, or interpretations within a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
Anachronism: A person, object, event, or language is placed outside its proper historical time period.
Aphorism: A memorable expression of an observation that contains truth.
Invective: Refers to harsh, strong and or abusive language being used to express animosity, hatred, blame.
Juxtaposition: The fact of two things being seen or placed close together with a contrasting effect.
Malapropism: The mistaken, often humorous, use of an incorrect word in place of a similar-sounding word.
Epigraph: A short quotation or saying at the beginning of a book or chapter, intended to suggest its theme.
Parts of Speech Review: - Noun: A person, place, thing, or idea. Example: ‐The avocado was gross‑. - Pronoun: Replaces a noun. Example: ‐He likes to do flips‑. - Verb: An action or state of being. Example: ‐James falls off his bed when his alarm goes off‑. - Adjective: Something that describes or modifies a noun. Example: ‐Peter wears really weird hats‑. - Adverb: Modifies a verb. Example: ‐Elijah cannot sing‑. - Preposition: Something that shows the relationship between nouns and other verbs. Example: ‐The sprite is on the plane‑. - Conjunction: Connects words or phrases. Example: ‐I like chocolate and vanilla‑. - Interjection: Expresses emotion or explanation. Example: ‐Wow im hungry‑.

Argument and Persuasion

Polemic: A strong attack or argument against something, specifically on a controversial topic.
Toulmin Argument: An organized, $6$ ‐part method of constructing a strong, persuasive argument, which is most effective in situations where there isn’t a clear answer. The six parts include: - $1.$ Claim - $2.$ Grounds - $3.$ Warrant - $4.$ Backing - $5.$ Qualifier - $6.$ Rebuttal
Inductive Reasoning: A type of reasoning that takes specific data and turns it into a generalized broad statement based on pattern recognition. It is based on probability and not certainty. It consists of generalizations and can use a "Bottom-Up" approach to its analysis.
Deductive Reasoning: A top-down logical process that moves from general premises to a guaranteed conclusion specific to the premises. - Syllogism: A type of deductive reasoning using logical and true statements to come to a conclusion. This is done using three elements: A major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
Warrant: Warrant is the assumption, belief, or value that connects an author’s evidence (data) to their claim.
Rogerian Argument: A form of reasoning that unites viewpoints of each side to create a common, middle ground that satisfies each party.

Logical Fallacies

Logical Fallacies: Flaws in reasoning that undermine your argument by making it logically invalid.
Straw Man Fallacy: Occurs when someone MISCONSTRUES or exaggerates someone’s argument and then argues against the DISTORTED version of the ORIGINAL argument instead of countering what the opponent really said.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (Post Hoc): Literally translated from Latin: ‐after this, therefore because of this‑. A logical fallacy where someone makes an assumption that one event must have caused the other simply because the event came first. It is very similar to the expression ‐correlation does not equal causation‑.
Oversimplification Fallacy: An instance where a complex issue with multiple causes or parts is reduced to a single cause or component. It falsifies reality to make an argument more compelling.
Non-Sequitur: Occurs when a conclusion to an argument is not logically connected to the evidence used or previous arguments made. The conclusion is often irrelevant and invalidates an argument.
Ad Hominem: A logical fallacy that attacks the character of a person rather than providing a reasonable argument.
Begging the Question (Circular Reasoning): The assumption to a conclusion in regards its validity towards a position.
Either/Or Reasoning: A logical error and claim that creates two exclusive options that someone makes seem to be the only solution, simplifying complex issues into black-and-white choices.
Hasty Generalizations: A logical fallacy where one draws a conclusion based on a small sample size without a sufficient amount of evidence.
Slippery Slope: When one same step leads to a series of events that end in one drastic change.
False Analogy: A logical fallacy where an argument relies on a misleading comparison between two things that are not truly comparable.
Doubtful Authority: A logical fallacy where a claim is supported by an unqualified, irrelevant, or biased source.

Syntax and Sentence Structure

A. Word Order

Basic: The fundamental, standard word order required to form grammatically correct sentences, most commonly structured as $\text{Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)}$ .
Interrupted: A grammatical construction where closely linked elements (such as a verb phrase, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase) are separated by the insertion of one or more words that are not grammatically part of that phrase.
Inverted: A grammatical construction where the typical, expected word order of a sentence is reversed or rearranged.
Listing: A grammatical structure in which a series of related items (words, phrases, or clauses) are arranged in a sequence, usually in parallel form, to convey information.
Cumulative/Loose: A sentence that begins with an independent clause and is followed by phrases or clauses that add more details about the main idea.
Parallelism: The use of matching grammatical structures to balance two or more ideas of equal importance. - Balanced: The use of matching grammatical structures, lengths, and rhythms to present related ideas as equal in importance. Elements in a series must share the same form. - Antithesis: A technique placing contrasting ideas in balanced, parallel grammatical structures to emphasize opposing concepts. It aligns opposite words or phrases within similar sentence structures. - Chiasmus: Words or concepts are said in reverse order ( $ABBA$ pattern). The reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses.
Periodic: A sentence in which the main idea is delayed until the end, creating suspense or emphasis.

B. Sentence Types – Purpose

Declarative: Of the nature of or making a declaration (formal statement).
Imperative: Something that’s important or fundamental.
Exclamatory: A cry or remark when expressing things such as pain, surprise or anger.
Interrogative: Having or conveying the force of a question.

C. Sentence Types – Structure

Simple: A sentence with one independent clause and no dependent clause.
Compound: A sentence with multiple independent clauses but no dependent clauses.
Complex: A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Compound-Complex: A sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

D. Omission, Addition, and Repetition

Types of Omission: - Ellipsis (not identifying the punctuation mark): The omission of one or more words that are grammatically necessary but understood from context, or the use of three dots ( $…$ ) to show omitted text or a pause in writing. - Asyndeton: The omission of coordinating conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses to create emphasis, speed, or intensity.
Types of Addition and Repetition: - Polysyndeton: The use of coordinating conjunctions (i.e., ‐and‑, ‐or‑, ‐but‑) several times in close succession, especially in places where conjunctions would not be present at all (where they would normally be replaced with a comma or other punctuation). - Anadiplosis: When a word or phrase at the end of one sentence or clause is repeated at the beginning of the next. - Anaphora: Repetition of a word at the beginning of successive (close together) sentences, phrases, or clauses. - Epistrophe: Repetition of a word at the end of successive (close together) sentences, phrases, or clauses.