Archaeological Practice in North America - Comprehensive Study Notes

Archaeological Practice in North America

  • Course: ANTH 3304
  • Semester: Spring 2026
  • Note: This property has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places by the United States Department of the Interior

Modern Archaeology in North America

  • Predominantly occurs within a regulatory compliance framework.
  • Guided by federal and state laws.
  • Conducted largely by individuals who do not descend from the peoples being studied.
    • This dynamic is changing slowly.

Popular Perception of Archaeology

  • Commonly visualized as spending significant time in the field working for universities and museums.

Reality of Archaeology

  • Majority of archaeologists are employed by private consulting firms and government agencies.
  • Cultural Resource Management (CRM) is a primary focus.
  • Significant time is spent on analysis and reporting, rather than fieldwork.

Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

  • “Cultural resources” include more than just archaeology, but archaeology is a substantial part of these resources.
  • Aims to mitigate and regulate the destruction of cultural resources.
  • Relevant federal laws:
    • Antiquities Act (1906)
    • National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
    • Reservoir Salvage Act (1960)
    • Archaeological Resources Protection Act (1979)
    • National Historic Preservation Act (1966)

Key Federal Laws Impacting CRM

Antiquities Act (1906)

  • Conferred the authority to the President to declare national monuments.
  • Utilized by all but four Presidents since enactment.
  • Specifically designed to protect archaeological sites located on federal lands.
    • Example: Devils Tower, first national monument, established by Theodore Roosevelt.

Works Progress Administration (WPA) (1930s)

  • Many WPA projects during the Great Depression resulted in the destruction of archaeological sites.
  • Recovery of materials from these sites became an element of WPA efforts.
  • Many mid-20th-century archaeologists began their careers during this time.
  • A substantial backlog of materials now exists in modern museums.
    • Example: WPA work at Irene Mound, Georgia (1937).

Interagency Archaeological Salvage Program (1945–1969)

  • Established in response to rapid infrastructure and suburban development following WWII.
  • Created by the National Park Service and the Smithsonian Institution to recover archaeology that would be destroyed.
  • Share similar aims to WPA archaeology but with increased scale and professionalism.

Reservoir Salvage Act (1960)

  • Focused on surveying river basins that would be inundated due to dam projects.
  • The Southern Methodist University (SMU) Anthropology Department completed some of these surveys.

National Historic Preservation Act (1966)

  • Mandated that federally funded projects, projects requiring federal permits, and projects on federal lands must identify historic properties that may be impacted and determine how to mitigate adverse effects.
  • Established the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation and State Historic Preservation Offices (SHPOs).
    • Tribal Historical Preservation Offices (THPOs) were created subsequently.
  • Signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson.

Features of the National Historic Preservation Act (1966)

  • Established the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) where historic properties can be nominated.
    • Example: Dallas Hall listed on NRHP in 1978.
  • Section 106 of the NHPA aligns closely with CRM practices.
    • Assessment includes:
      • Determination if NRHP-eligible properties are likely to be adversely affected by federal projects.
      • Surveys and record searches are conducted.
      • If adverse effects are found, mitigation strategies such as avoidance, data recovery (excavation), or alternative scenarios are implemented.
    • Consultation with affected groups and SHPO is required for the Section 106 process.

What Makes a Property Eligible for NRHP?

  • Eligibility criteria include:
    • A. Association with significant historical events.
    • B. Association with the lives of significant persons in history.
    • C. Embodying distinctive construction characteristics, artistic values, or representing significant entities.
    • D. Potential for yielding important historical or prehistoric information.

Participants in the Section 106 Process

  • Key parties include:
    • Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
    • State Historic Preservation Offices (TX SHPO, NM SHPO, OK SHPO, etc.)
    • Various government agencies (e.g., Bureau of Land Management)
    • Local Historian Offices and Non-Governmental Entities
    • Private Cultural Resource Management (CRM) firms
    • Descendants and other consulted groups who may perform work, initiate projects, or inform study.

National Environmental Policy Act (1969)

  • NEPA established by the Council on Environmental Quality.
  • Focused on producing Environmental Impact Statements.
  • Offered a framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of federal projects, requiring public comment and disclosure.
  • Inclusive of cultural resources, despite its name lacking “protection.”
  • Signed into law by President Richard Nixon.

Comparison: NHPA vs NEPA

  • Both laws influence most CRM work.
    • Many archaeological sites must be evaluated under both statutes.
    • NEPA's application is broader, while NHPA offers more specific protections for eligible sites.
    • Most NRHP eligible properties qualify as cultural resources under NEPA, but numerous cultural resources may not be NRHP eligible.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act (1979)

  • ARPA aimed to establish stricter penalties and protective measures than those of the Antiquities Act.
  • Implemented fines and potential incarceration for violations.
  • Introduced a federal permitting system for archaeological activities on federal lands.
  • Signed into law by President Jimmy Carter.

UNESCO and World Heritage Sites

  • UNESCO designates world heritage sites, some located in North America, that receive legal protections by the United Nations.
    • Examples include Head-Smashed-in Buffalo Jump in Alberta and Chaco Canyon in New Mexico.

CRM in Practice

  • Methods include:
    • Historic records research
    • Pedestrian and remote survey
    • Test excavation
    • Excavation (data recovery as a form of mitigation)
    • Laboratory analysis
    • Reporting results

Role of Academia and Museums

  • Conduct a small proportion of archaeological work in contemporary contexts.
  • Research-driven rather than compliance-focused.
  • Historically engaged in early CRM work and serve as repositories for recovered materials.

Demographics of Archaeological Work

  • Predominantly performed by individuals with BA/BS degrees in anthropology, geography, and geology.
  • Fieldwork is often temporary and seasonal.
  • Project management roles usually occupied by MA/MS degree holders, with some PhDs.
  • Professional organizations include the Register of Professional Archaeologists (RPA) and the Society for American Archaeology (SAA).

Perceptions of Archaeology Workforce

  • Traditional image includes older (often white) men wearing tweed suits or khaki field attire.
    • Notably true throughout much of the 20th century (e.g., AV Kidder, James Deetz, Lewis Binford).
  • Changing dynamics:
    • Early 20th century women were typically directed to museum roles (e.g., H. Marie Wormington, Bertha “Birdie” Parker, Tatiana Proskouriakoff).

Contemporary Issues in Archaeology

  • The field remains predominantly white and lacks Indigenous representation, which affects its future developments.
  • New initiatives focus on incorporating diversity in archaeological practice.
    • Example: Society of Black Archaeologists.
  • Native Americans have historically contributed to archaeology but often faced exclusion.
    • Example: Arthur C Parker, a Seneca, was the first president of the Society for American Archaeology (1935).

Archaeology and Indigenous American Relations

  • Early 20th century archaeology detached from contemporary Indigenous interests, treating Native Americans as subjects rather than partners.
  • Post-Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) marked significant shifts:
    • Era of assimilation programs began.
    • American Indian boarding schools continued until 1973.

American Indian Movement (AIM) (1968)

  • Formed to address poverty, promote self-determination, assert identity, and oppose federal government actions.
  • Key events included:
    • 1969 Occupation of Alcatraz
    • 1972 Occupation of Bureau of Indian Affairs headquarters
    • 1973 Wounded Knee Incident at Pine Ridge Reservation.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978)

  • Acknowledges the U.S. government's historical suppression of Native American religious practices.
  • Marked a policy shift from early 20th-century practices.

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) (1990)

  • Addresses the presence of Native American burials and remains on both private and public lands across North America.
  • Historically treated as curiosities by the public and archaeologists, leading to rampant looting.
  • NAGPRA mandates consultation when bodies are encountered; final disposition determined by culturally affiliated groups.

Kennewick Man Controversy (1996)

  • Discovered by Army Corps of Engineers in Washington.
  • Initially assessed as a recent find; later carbon-dated to 9000 years ago, with human artifacts found near.
  • Tribes invoked NAGPRA to claim reburial, while researchers argued against cultural affiliation with contemporary tribes.
  • Kennewick Man reburied in 2017, after being identified as most closely related to Colville Tribe.

Operation Cerberus (2009)

  • FBI and BLM raided a doctor’s home in Blanding, UT for possession of over 40,000 looted artifacts from public lands.
  • Ongoing ARPA investigations and NAGPRA consultations followed for years.

The Question of Ownership in Archaeology

  • Involves reconciling scientific interests with the legacies of America's colonial history.
  • Emphasizes the necessity of involving descendant communities as active partners in archaeological pursuits.
  • Current archaeology focuses as much on the community's desires as on researchers' interests, existing in a complex web of regulations, business interests, research, and historical preservation.