Jacqueline Kennedy: First Lady of the New Frontier – A Comprehensive Study
Jacqueline Kennedy: First Lady of the New Frontier – A Comprehensive Study
Introduction to Jacqueline Kennedy's Iconic Status
Richard Nixon's tribute: Following JFK's assassination, Nixon, a bitter rival, acknowledged Jacqueline Kennedy's unique contribution, noting she brought "charm, beauty and elegance as the official hostess of America," and her "mystique of the young in heart" made an "indelible impression on the American consciousness." (Condolence note after JFK's assassination).
Global Impact: Her image captivated the American imagination and admirers worldwide.
Enduring Affection: Even after years, her admirers recalled her with undiminished fondness, as exemplified by an anecdote of a silent tribute in Vienna's St. Stephen's Cathedral during her visit with Khrushchev, where attendees waved white handkerchiefs.
Precedents and Her Unique Legacy
Historical Precedents for First Lady Roles: While Jacqueline Kennedy seemed unique, many of her contributions echoed those of predecessors:
Presidential Hostess: Dolley Madison served as a paradigmatic hostess for Thomas Jefferson and her husband, James Madison, famously safeguarding George Washington's portrait in .
Fashion and White House Reimagining: Mary Todd Lincoln was known for her stylish yet costly wardrobe, and subsequent First Ladies like Edith Roosevelt, Grace Coolidge, Lou Henry Hoover, Eleanor Roosevelt, and the Trumans oversaw White House refurbishments and infrastructure overhauls.
Promoting Arts: The use of the White House to spotlight performing arts was traceable to both Roosevelt administrations.
Public Fascination with Children: Teddy Roosevelt's boisterous children attracted public attention, a phenomenon Mrs. Kennedy later disliked for its intrusiveness.
Beauty and Style: Grace Coolidge was celebrated for her fashion sense and connection to the Jazz Age White House.
Jacqueline Kennedy's Uniqueness: Presidential biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin noted that "culturally something happened between [Mrs. Kennedy] and the decade [] she lived in," transcending mere celebrity to become a legendary icon.
Iconic Image: Her image was immortalized in Andy Warhol's pop art, she defined the "Jackie look" through fashion, hairstyles, and accessories, and left an indelible mark on history's photographic record.
Role of an Icon: Icons fulfill or epitomize a historic period, reflecting their era while also creating the lens through which it is viewed. They often master new media technologies to their advantage.
The Influence of Media and Changing Times
Entertainment Icons as Precedent:
Elvis Presley (1950s): Blended diverse musical genres at the dawn of the civil rights movement, captivating a rebellious youth culture with new prosperity and consumerism. In , had a total income of $ ext{7 billion}/year, averaging $ ext{10.55}/week, enabling spending on records and transistor radios. Television (Steve Allen, Ed Sullivan) brought him to American homes.
Bing Crosby (1930s-WWII): Symbolized comfort during the Depression with his mellow baritone, perfectly suited for new electronic microphones and radio. His songs, like "Pennies From Heaven" and "White Christmas", offered hope and solace.
Television's Transformative Role: Jacqueline Kennedy became a pop icon and projected emblems of American culture and the presidency during a pivotal shift in media:
TV Penetration: In , only about of U.S. households had a TV; by , it was ; and by (JFK's inauguration), over 80 ext{%} owned a set.
Visual Image: Her dark coloring transmitted exquisitely in black and white, though her thin, whispery voice was less suited for broadcasting, a minor issue given her limited media interviews (except for the White House tour).
Glossy Magazines: Publications like Life and Look vividly captured her fresh skin tone, auburn hair, dazzling smile, and colorful wardrobe in partially color-printed pages.
Celebrity Status: Hollywood magazines focused on her active lifestyle; by late , Photoplay issues featured her, boosting sales by copies per cover. She was even compared to Elizabeth Taylor, once sharing a cover with the headline "America's Queens."
Media Control: Despite sensational headlines that led to White House disapproval, media portrayals were overwhelmingly positive. Stories of JFK's infidelities were notably absent from mainstream gossip magazines before his death.
Meeting the Needs of the Era: The Kennedys resonated with a "greatest generation" shaped by depression and war, symbolizing youth, glamour, culture, and sophistication amidst Cold War tensions, domestic demographic shifts, and generational change in leadership.
Generational Shift: JFK's success was seen as "generational," representing the rise of World War II's junior officers.
Women's Influence: While the feminist movement was nascent, suburban housewives found inspiration in her fashion trends.
Jacqueline Kennedy's Role in Diplomacy and the Arts
Cold War Diplomacy: The Kennedys were an effective team in projecting symbols during the Cold War struggle for "hearts and minds" globally.
Glamour vs. Austerity: Her sophisticated, elegant appearance contrasted sharply with the "dull grayness and stocky physiques" of communist leaders and their wives.
Charming Diplomat: She charmed Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the Vienna summit, despite his earlier contentious interactions with her husband.
Foreign Policy Asset: She was invaluable in Latin America, speaking Spanish to admiring crowds, and undertook a successful "tour de force" solo goodwill trip to India and Pakistan in , enchanting leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Mohammed Ayub Khan.
Air Force One: She chose the stately blue and white colors for the new Boeing Air Force One's exterior and personally selected new furniture and art for its interior.
White House Restoration and Cultural Promotion:
National Shrine: Her restoration of the White House and its grounds, creation of a guidebook, and establishment of the White House Historical Association drew significant attention. This model was later copied by Congress () and the Supreme Court ().
Televised Tour: Her February televised tour of the Executive Mansion earned an Emmy Award and was screened internationally, even behind the Iron Curtain, with JFK's cameo exalting American history.
Lafayette Square and Blair House: She led the preservation of Lafayette Square's -century ambiance and advocated refurbishing Blair House as a showplace for visiting dignitaries.
Cultural Galas: The Kennedys extensively entertained heads of state, notably hosting Pakistan's President Khan at George Washington's Mt. Vernon. They transformed White House entertaining by holding concerts, ballets, and plays, and honoring artists and scientists with gala dinners.
Government and the Arts: They linked government and the arts, promoting the establishment of a National Cultural Center, an innovation advocated by critics in the .
Intellectual Image: Her redecoration of the White House library and acquisition of American classics bolstered the image of an intellectual presidential household.
Youthfulness, Societal Norms, and Family Life
Contrast to Predecessors: Her youth resonated profoundly, contrasting with "grandmotherly" First Ladies like Eleanor Roosevelt ( upon leaving WH), Bess Truman (), and Mamie Eisenhower ().
Questioning Her Appeal: Male journalists, like Fletcher Knebel, initially debated whether her youth and attractiveness were an asset or liability, citing an old maxim against "too attractive" candidates' wives.
Modern Image: She projected an image of an "attractive, dynamic older sister," known for athleticism (equestrian skills, waterskiing, dancing the twist) and wearing sport clothes, including bathing suits and slacks. This led to labels like "a sort of beatnik" from critics and praise from Vogue for "eschewing the hidebound, formalized elegance of the fifties."
Childbearing Age: Uniquely, she was of childbearing age, unlike earlier -century First Ladies like Edith Roosevelt and Edith Wilson, who were already when entering the White House.
Post-War Baby Boom and Maternal Image:
Demographic Shifts: Post-Depression (postponed marriages, fewer children) and WWII (accelerated courtship) led to a massive post-war baby boom, with birth rates rising from during the Depression to in . Between and , children were born, and birthrates for third and fourth children doubled and tripled, respectively.
Maternal Symbol: Her pregnancy with John F. Kennedy Jr. during the campaign solidified her maternal image, with his birth three weeks after JFK's victory being a historic first. She connected with mothers of baby boomers, though the nation mourned the loss of her premature infant son, Patrick, in August .
Post-War Consumerism: The population explosion created a massive consumer market fueled by suburban growth and rising prosperity. Real wages rose by half between and , and discretionary income doubled in the , making nearly two-thirds of the population middle class by .
Jackie's Acquisitiveness: Her enjoyment of designer clothing, White House redecoration, and collecting antiques, though atypical of average middle-class consumerism, mirrored the era's aspiration for "the good life." However, her "jet-setting tendency" (e.g., vacations without husband/children) drew some skepticism from family-oriented Americans, as noted by Newsweek in .
Traditional vs. Modern First Ladyship
"Supportive Spouses/Model Wives": Robert Watson categorized Jacqueline Kennedy with Bess Truman, Mamie Eisenhower, Lady Bird Johnson (with exceptions for her policy work), and Pat Nixon as First Ladies who primarily served as supportive spouses, contrasting with Eleanor Roosevelt's political activism.
A "Bridge" Generation: Her "hybrid" first ladyship reflected a transitional "bridge" generation of women, spanning the cult of domesticity and the women's liberation movement.
Women in the Workforce: By , 40 ext{%} of women over held jobs outside the home, with female employment growing four times faster than male. Middle-class women often worked to enhance their family's standard of living, not just for necessities.
Media Stereotypes: Mainstream media (magazines, TV sitcoms like Leave It to Beaver, Father Knows Best) often reinforced a stereotype of the perfect mid-century wife and mother, always impeccably dressed in shirtwaist dresses, pearls, and heels while performing household duties. Films like Far from Heaven later parodied this veneer of perfection.
Jackie's Conformity (and Subversion): While she generally conformed to the ideal housewife image in public (e.g., wearing dresses for Georgetown errands in vs. preferred slacks), she also influenced fashion with sophisticated straight-line skirts. On the campaign trail, she was meticulously attired.
Smoking: Despite the widespread acceptance of smoking in the mid--century, Jackie, a smoker since prep school, carefully avoided being photographed with cigarettes and later asked the Kennedy Library not to reproduce such images. The White House, however, accommodated smoking with ashtrays and cigarettes at formal dinners, reflecting pre-anti-smoking movement norms. Her habit may have impacted her problematic pregnancies.
Declared Role: Although her high school yearbook ambition was "not to be a housewife," she declared her role as First Lady was to be a helpmate, to make her husband's home a "haven, a refuge" so he could "do better because of me." Her projects (White House restoration, Lafayette Square, arts promotion) were typical volunteer activities for women of her social standing.
Influencing Future First Ladies: Her ability to capture public attention set a precedent for successors like Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, Nancy Reagan, Barbara and Laura Bush, and Hillary Rodham Clinton, who adopted more public and politically active roles.
Privacy, Public Image, and Legacy
Avoiding Policy Debates: While she campaigned actively, Jackie avoided public policy complexities, famously telling CBS's Charles Collingwood that the government's role in the arts was "too complicated."
Behind-the-Scenes Influence: She effectively used her influence behind the scenes for causes like creating museum status for the White House, promoting tax deductions for donations, establishing the White House Historical Association, and preserving Lafayette Square.
Privacy in a Public Role: By adhering to a pre-women's movement vision of home and family as a refuge, she maintained a boundary between her private and public life, a luxury almost impossible for later First Ladies due to the rise of investigative journalism and news coverage.
"Aura of Remoteness": Newsweek () described her as an "expert" in her role, with an "aura of remoteness." She granted few interviews and intentionally shielded her private thoughts, refusing to publish memoirs or diaries, thus preserving her mystique, in line with Walter Bagehot's adage: "We must not let in daylight upon magic."
Contrast with Modern First Ladies: Hillary Rodham Clinton's memoir, Living History (), offered intimate details of her marriage, notably her reaction to the Monica Lewinsky scandal, a stark contrast to Jackie's reticence and the media's pre- self-censorship regarding presidential infidelities.
Symbolic Power: By carefully controlling her public image, Jackie Kennedy preserved her political currency and the symbolism she built around her husband and the presidency. The reality of their marriage or presidency was less important than the "larger range of meaning, typically with emotional, moral, or psychological impact" that their "political symbol" conveyed.
White House as Icon: She transformed the White House into an "enchanting icon," making it a source of national pride through its restoration and a colorful guidebook.
"Presidential Power": Her work echoed Richard Neustadt's book Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership, which highlighted the president's "personal power" and ability to persuade, by drawing attention to the very seat of that power.
Post-Assassination Legacy: JFK's assassination, with Jackie by his side, elevated her to iconic legend, symbolizing truncated youth and artistic promise.
"Consummate Director of Funereal Images": She meticulously crafted public images, from her bloodstained suit on return from Dallas, to her stoic presence at the funeral, to prompting -year-old John Jr.'s salute.
Enduring Symbols: She requested an "eternal flame" for JFK's grave at Arlington (like Paris's Arc de Triomphe) and propagated the "Camelot metaphor" for his presidency, cementing a magical quality in the American mind.
Life's Work: For years, she dedicated herself to cementing his legacy through institutions like the John F. Kennedy Library and Museum, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, and the John F. Kennedy School of Government.
Lasting Public Admiration: Her public image, as measured by Gallup polls, rivaled Eleanor Roosevelt. She consistently ranked #1 on Gallup's "Most Admired Women" from to , displacing Eleanor Roosevelt (who held it from ). Despite a temporary drop to #5 in the late and early due to conflict over Death of a President and her marriage to Aristotle Onassis, she remained in the top ten until her death in . The subsequent chapters of the book promised to explore the "substance behind the icon," suggesting her influence extended beyond mere celebrity and symbolism.