Voting in The United States

Voting is the most basic form of political participation.
Democratic elections require high participation and equal ability to vote across all social groups.
Political equality can be violated if certain groups are disenfranchised.

Originally, states determined voter eligibility.
The franchise was severely limited, excluding enslaved people, Native Americans, women, and white men without property.
Expansion of the right to vote has been a lengthy process.

Elections shifted to direct methods for government officials.
Development of a two-party system clarified choices for citizens and promoted accountability.

The election of the president has become more directly democratic, despite the Electoral College.
By 1800, most states allowed a popular vote for electors.
The Twelfth Amendment in 1804 further clarified the process.
The Twelfth Amendment required each elector to select only one candidate.
Despite typically ensuring that American citizens choose their president more or less directly, there have been some recent splits between the Electoral College and the popular will votes:
- In 2000, Al Gore won the popular vote, but George W. Bush won the electoral vote after a Supreme Court ruling.
- In 2016, Donald Trump lost the popular vote by almost 3,000,000 ballots, but won the electoral college.
- In 2020, Joe Biden won the electoral college narrowly while winning the popular vote by nearly 4.5%.
By 1840, parties started nominating presidential candidates in national conventions.
Voters began selecting convention delegates directly.
Presidential nominees are now largely selected by voters.
Primaries and caucuses enhanced democratic control of the government.

Elections cannot ensure government responsiveness unless all citizens can easily exercise their right to vote.
Millions of Americans do not vote, and some states have passed laws making it more difficult to vote.
Stricter voting requirements may disproportionately affect low-income people and racial minorities.
Fewer people vote today than during most of the 19th century.
Turnout in 2020 surpassed 67%, an outlier since 1912.
Typically, only $50-65$ % of Americans vote in presidential elections and $40-50$ % in off years.
Turnout is even lower in primaries and local elections (as low as $10-20$ %).
Turnout in presidential elections remains well below turnout in other democratic countries (e.g., over $75$ % in Western Europe, over $90$ % in Australia).

Citizens must register in advance to vote.
The registration period is typically $10-30$ days before an election.
Many people do not remember to register, lack required paperwork, or do not understand the process.
Moving within or between states requires re-registration.
One study shows that registration requirements lower turnout by 9 percentage points.
Most European countries automatically register eligible voters.
Same-day registration increases turnout by $3-7$ percentage points.
In Minnesota and Wisconsin in 2016, where same-day registration is in effect, turnout was 74% and 69% respectively.
The National Voter Registration Act (Motor Voter Law) requires states to allow registration at motor vehicle licensing offices.

US elections are held during the week, not on a national holiday.
This reduces voter turnout.
Inconvenience discourages many people.
Early voting allows voters to cast ballots in the days leading up to the election (39 states now have some form of early voting).
Mail-in ballots allow voters to mail in their ballots (expanded in 2020 due to the coronavirus).

Social pressure from friends and social media can encourage voting.
The risk of being exposed as a non-voter can motivate individuals to vote.
Voting is habit-forming.
Reassurance that votes are private increases turnout.
Increased use of technology and social media can encourage voting, especially among young people.
Reforms such as same-day registration, early voting, and mail-in ballots are becoming more common.
Online voting may be on the horizon.

A counter-movement seeks to make registration and voting harder.
Democrats believe expanded electorate favors them (lower income, less educated, college students, and racial and ethnic minorities).
Republicans claim they are interested in rooting out voters fraud in present system.
Republican-controlled states have passed laws requiring government-issued photo IDs, cutting back early voting periods, ending same-day registration, and requiring proof of citizenship.
Some states make it harder for college students to vote.
One organization counts 23 states have passed restrictive voting laws since 2010.
Ex-felons cannot vote in some states, even after completing their sentences.
Florida restored ex-felon voting rights in 2018 but later required them to pay all court fees and fines first.
Many states face lawsuits over their requirements.
False claims of voter fraud in the aftermath of the 2020 election may lead to more attempts to make voting more difficult.

Increased negative advertising, partisanship, and incivility in politics may contribute to cynicism and low turnout.
Less time available for political participation may also play a role.
Scholars disagree about the extent to which these factors affect voting turnout.