Detailed Study Notes on Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour

Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour

Course Introduction

• Instructor: Dr. Victoria Scaife

• Overview of topics: prosocial and antisocial behaviors, theories explaining these behaviors, and the empirical studies supporting them.

Course Structure

• Part 1: Prosocial Behaviour

  • Review and Introduction

  • Perspectives on Prosocial Behaviour

  • Key Theories:

  • Evolutionary Perspective

  • Social Exchange Theory

  • Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

  • Identifying Features of People and Situations

  • Helping in Emergencies: The Bystander Effect

• Part 2: Antisocial Behaviour

  • Focus on Aggression

  • Factors Influencing Aggression:

  • Gender

  • Frustration, Displacement, & Catharsis

  • Priming

  • Climate

  • Media & Video Games

  • Methods to Reduce Aggression

  • Summary / Conclusion

Key Themes in Current Studies

• In-depth analysis of theory and empirical evidence related to prosocial and antisocial behavior.

• Critical evaluation:

  • Hierarchies among theoretical frameworks (higher-level thinking)

  • Evaluation of research methods and findings (lower-level thinking)

• Emphasis on:

  • Big Themes

  • Debates

  • Distinctions in social psychology

• Social psychology seeks to validate hypotheses with empirical data, considering:

  • Direction of effects

  • Conditions under which effects manifest

  • Reversibility of effects

  • Underlying reasons for observed effects

Understanding Prosocial Behaviour

Definition and Characteristics

• Social behaviors that benefit individuals or society as a whole, facilitating societal functioning.

• Involves:

  • Direct and indirect help to others

  • Cooperation

  • Conformance to social norms

Perspectives on Prosocial Behaviour

1. Evolutionary Perspective

   • Concept of natural selection favoring genes that promote individual survival.

   • Example: Kin Selection (helping those related by blood).

2. Social Exchange Theory

   • Altruism often rooted in self-interest; individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs when helping others.

   • Cost-benefit analysis influences decisions to help.

   • Rewards:

     • Increases likelihood of future assistance

     • Relief from personal distress

     • Social approval

   • Costs:

     • Risk of harm or embarrassment

     • Time investment

3. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

   • Proposed by Batson (1991): Two distinct motives for aiding others:

     • Egoistic Motive: Desire to increase one’s own welfare

     • Altruistic Motive: Desire to improve another’s welfare, regardless of self-interest.

   • Empathy can lead to altruistic behavior.

Bystander Effect in Emergencies

• The case study of Kitty Genovese highlights that the presence of others often leads to reduced likelihood of helping behaviors in emergencies.

• Bystander Affect: More people present = less likely individuals are to help, confirmed across numerous studies (over 50 studies by Latane & Nida, 1981).

• Cognitive Model (Latane & Darley, 1968): Stresses five steps to help:

  1. Notice the emergency

  2. Interpret the situation as an emergency

  3. Assume responsibility

  4. Have the appropriate skills

  5. Provide help if conditions allow.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Individuals feel less compelled to take action when others are present, affecting their likelihood to assist.

Factors Influencing Prosocial Behaviour

• Personal Traits: Empathy levels, altruism, personality traits (Davis, 1980).

• Environmental Influences: Urban vs. rural settings, perceived similarity, and attractiveness of victims (beautiful victims).

Overview of Antisocial Behaviour

Definition and Characteristics

• Behaviors intended to harm oneself, another person, or an object (Bjorkqvist & Niemela, 1992).

• Essential elements:

  • Intent to harm, which distinguishes these actions from mere accidents.

  • Includes both verbal and physical forms, and can be directed towards oneself or objects.

• Distinct from emotions like anger and attitudes such as hostility, as it emphasizes the behavioral intention.

Types of Aggression

1. Instrumental Aggression: Engaging in aggression as a means to an end (e.g., personal gain).

2. Hostile Aggression: Acts driven by emotions; aggression aimed to cause harm for its own sake.

3. Indirect/Relational Aggression: Non-physical forms (e.g., lies, gossip).

Factors Influencing Aggression

• Gender Differences: Men tend to exhibit more violent behavior than women across various cultural contexts.

• Biological Contributors: Genetic links to aggression, hormones like testosterone, and influence of specific brain regions.

• Social Learning: Aggression can be learned through observing and imitating others (Bandura, 1971).

• Environmental Effects: External factors including frustration, media exposure, and climate variations all play roles in aggressive behaviors.

Effective Strategies for Reducing Aggression

• Development of self-control techniques

• Implementation of cognitive-behavioral methods

• Relaxation practices

Conclusion

• Understanding the dynamics of prosocial and antisocial behaviors can influence societal interactions and interventions.

Essential Readings

1. Pfattheicher, S., Nielsen, Y.A., & Thielmann, I. (2022). Prosocial behavior and altruism: A review of concepts. Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 124-129.

2. Kavussanu, M., & Al-Yaaribi (2021). Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19(2), 179-202.

3. Anderson, C.A., & Bushman, B.J. (2002). Human Aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51.

4. Archer, J., & Coyne, S.M. (2005). An Integrated Review of Indirect Relational and Social Aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(3), 212-230.

Additional References

• Further studies and analyses reinforce understandings of prosocial and antisocial behaviors within various contexts, including the impact of socioeconomic factors and intervention strategies to reduce antisocial behavior.