AQA Psychology A-level: Topic 2 - Memory Notes

Part 1 — Coding, Capacity and Duration of Memory

  • Coding: Information format stored in memory.

    • STM: Acoustic coding; LTM: Semantic coding (Baddeley, 1966).
    • More mistakes with acoustically similar words shortly after learning.
    • More mistakes with semantically similar words after a delay.

  • Capacity: Amount of information stored.

    • STM: 7 +/- 2 items (Miller). Can use chunking (e.g., 7 days of the week).
    • LTM: Unlimited capacity.
    • Jacobs: Mean letter span = 7.3; mean digit span = 9.3.

  • Duration: Time information is stored.

    • STM: 18-30 seconds (Petersen et al, 1959).
    • LTM: Unlimited (Bahrick et al, 1975).

Part 2 — The Multi-Store Model of Memory

  • Multi-Store Model (MSM): Illustrates storage, transfer, retrieval, and forgetting in memory.
    • Stores: Sensory register, Short-Term Memory (STM), Long-Term Memory (LTM).
    • Sensory register: Large capacity but brief duration (< 0.5 seconds). Requires attention to pass to STM.

Part 3 — Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Types of LTM:
    • Episodic: Personal memories, context of events (e.g., wedding).
    • Semantic: General world knowledge (e.g., meanings of words).
    • Procedural: Skills (e.g., swimming).
    • Episodic and semantic need conscious recall; procedural is unconscious.

Part 4 — The Working Memory Model

  • Working Memory Model (WMM): Divides STM into components.
    • Central Executive: Allocates tasks with limited capacity.
    • Phonological Loop: Processes auditory information.
    • Visuo-spatial Sketchpad: Handles visual/spatial data.
    • Episodic Buffer: Integrates data.

Part 5 — Explanations for Forgetting: Interference

  • Interference: One memory disrupts another.
    • Types: Retroactive (new blocks old) & Proactive (old blocks new).
    • Supported by McGeoch and McDonald (1931) with word lists.

Part 6 — Explanations for Forgetting: Retrieval Failure

  • Retrieval Failure: Forgetting due to absence of cues at recall.
    • Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP).
    • Context-dependent: Match in external environment.
    • State-dependent: Match in internal state.

Part 7 — Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information

  • Eyewitness testimony (EWT) accuracy can be reduced by misleading info (leading questions).
    • Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions influenced speed estimates.
    • Gabbert et al (2003): Post-event discussions led to high inaccuracy rates in recall.

Part 8 — Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety

  • Anxiety: Physiological response affecting EWT.
    • Negative impact (Johnson & Scott, 1976) vs. Positive impact (Yuille & Cutshall, 1986).
    • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Inverted-U effect of arousal on performance.

Part 9 — Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony

  • Cognitive Interview: Method to enhance recall accuracy.
    • Steps: Report everything, Reinstate context, Change perspective, Reverse order.
    • Enhanced cognitive interview incorporates social dynamics between interviewer and eyewitness.
    • Training challenges and practical application issues exist, along with increased recall of incorrect info.