American Civil War and Reconstruction Study Guide
The American Civil War - Main Events: Study Guide
Fort Sumter: The Start of the War
Main Idea: The first shots of the Civil War were fired at Fort Sumter, a federal fort in Confederate territory.
Details:
Fort Sumter was the last U.S. federal stronghold in the South, located on an island in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina.
After his election, President Lincoln decided to hold the fort but was determined not to start a war.
He informed the governor of South Carolina that he would only be resupplying the fort with food and medical supplies.
This action placed the decision of war or peace on Confederate President Jefferson Davis.
On April 12-13, 1861, Davis ordered Confederate troops to bombard the fort for 33 hours before Lincoln's relief could arrive.
On April 14, 1861, Fort Sumter surrendered to the Confederacy.
Significance:
The attack on Fort Sumter unified the North against the South and led Lincoln to proclaim that an insurrection existed.
Lincoln called for 75,000 troops, and in the following weeks, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas joined the Confederacy.
Bull Run: The First Major Battle
Main Idea: The First Battle of Bull Run shattered the idea that the Civil War would be short and easy.
Details:
The battle occurred on July 21, 1861.
Union forces, led by General Irvin McDowell, initially had success.
However, Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson's reinforcements turned the tide of the battle, leading to a Confederate victory.
Significance:
The battle's outcome destroyed the notion on both sides that the war would be quick, a phenomenon known as "short war syndrome."
The Confederate victory led to the replacement of General McDowell with General George B. McClellan.
General Jackson earned his famous nickname "Stonewall" for his actions during the battle.
Antietam: The Bloodiest Day
Main Idea: The Battle of Antietam was the single bloodiest day in American military history and a crucial strategic victory for the Union.
Details:
The battle took place on September 17, 1862.
After repelling McClellan from Virginia, Confederate General Robert E. Lee invaded Maryland with goals to:
Bring border states into the Confederacy
Persuade Britain and France to recognize southern independence
Influence Northern elections
Capture Washington D.C.
A Union corporal found a copy of Lee's orders wrapped around cigars, giving Union commander General George B. McClellan a key advantage.
Fighting lasted over 12 hours, resulting in over 26,000 casualties.
Significance:
The Union achieved a strategic victory because Lee was repelled from Maryland, and no border states joined the Confederacy.
Despite the victory, McClellan was fired for failing to pursue and crush Lee's army.
The battle provided Lincoln with the victory needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, changing the war's moral purpose.
The Emancipation Proclamation: A Moral Turning Point
Main Idea: The Emancipation Proclamation fundamentally changed the purpose of the war from restoring the Union to also freeing the slaves.
Details:
Lincoln issued the preliminary proclamation after the Battle of Antietam.
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln signed the official proclamation, which declared that "all persons held as slaves" within the rebellious states "are, and henceforward shall be free."
It used Lincoln's powers as commander in chief to attack the Confederacy's labor force.
Crucially, it did not free a single slave on the day it was signed because it only applied to slaves behind Confederate lines and not to those in border states or parts of the Confederacy already under Union control.
Significance:
The war's focus changed from being solely about restoring the Union to also being a moral struggle to free slaves.
This led to the enlistment of around 180,000 black soldiers into the Union army.
In response, Confederate President Jefferson Davis declared that black troops would be returned to slavery or killed, and their white commanders would be executed.
Gettysburg: High Tide of the Confederacy
Main Idea: The Battle of Gettysburg marked the last major Confederate invasion of the North and a turning point from which the Confederacy would never recover.
Details:
Taking place from July 1-3, 1863, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, it was Lee's second invasion of the North.
The battle featured three major engagements: Cemetery Ridge, Little Round Top, and Pickett's Charge.
On the first day, Union cavalry under John Buford secured the high ground on the hills and ridges surrounding the town, holding off the Confederates until reinforcements arrived.
On the second day, Union forces, including the 20th Maine led by Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain, successfully defended Little Round Top, a key position, with a famous bayonet charge.
On the third day, Lee ordered a disastrous frontal assault known as Pickett's Charge against the center of the Union line. Fewer than half of the 14,000 men who charged made it back.
Significance:
With staggering losses of over 51,000 combined casualties, Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and the Confederacy as a whole would never recover from the loss at Gettysburg.
The battle is often referred to as the "high tide of the Confederacy" because it represented the peak of their war effort.
The Gettysburg Address: A New Birth of Freedom
Main Idea: In a short but powerful speech, Lincoln redefined the meaning of the United States.
Details:
In November 1863, at a ceremony to dedicate a cemetery at Gettysburg, Lincoln delivered "a few appropriate remarks" after the main speaker.
Significance:
The address "remade America" by changing the public's perception of the country from "The United States are" a collection of individual states to "The United States is" a single, unified nation.
Vicksburg: Cutting the Confederacy in Half
Main Idea: The Union capture of Vicksburg gave them control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two.
Details:
Union General Ulysses S. Grant sought to gain control of the Mississippi River to divide the Confederacy.
Vicksburg, Mississippi, was the second to last Confederate stronghold on the river.
After initial attempts failed, Grant settled in for a siege in May 1863, which forced citizens into caves and cut off the food supply.
The Confederate commander surrendered on July 4, 1863.
Five days later, the last Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River, Port Hudson, Louisiana, also fell.
Significance:
The fall of Vicksburg meant the Confederacy was effectively cut in two, severely hampering their ability to move troops and supplies.
Total War and Sherman's March to the Sea
Main Idea: The Union adopted a strategy of total war, targeting not just the Confederate military but also the civilian population and its resources.
Details:
In March 1864, Lincoln appointed Ulysses S. Grant as the commander of all Union armies, and Grant in turn appointed William Tecumseh Sherman to command the military division of the Mississippi.
Grant and Sherman's strategy of total war involved fighting against Confederate armies, the government, and the civilian population.
In September 1864, Sherman captured and burned Atlanta to the ground.
His "March to the Sea" continued until December 1864, when he reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah.
Significance:
This strategy was designed to break the South's morale and ability to wage war, as the North could afford the losses while the South could not.
News of Sherman's capture of Atlanta helped bolster Northern morale and contributed to Lincoln's reelection in 1864.
The End of the War and Its Aftermath
Main Idea: The war ended with Lee's surrender at Appomattox, leading to significant political and social changes.
Details:
On April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee and General Ulysses S. Grant met at Appomattox Court House to arrange the Confederate surrender.
The war's human cost was immense, with 360,000 Union and 260,000 Confederate soldiers dead.
Just five days after the surrender, President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865.
Significance:
The war solidified the power of the federal government, leading to new laws like the income tax and conscription laws.
The issue of states' rights remained, but no state has ever threatened secession again.
The assassination of Lincoln was a national tragedy, with over 7 million Americans mourning publicly during his funeral procession.
Reconstruction: Rebuilding the Nation
Main Idea: Reconstruction was the period after the Civil War when the U.S. began to rebuild, with different phases and goals.
Details:
Reconstruction had three phases:
Wartime Reconstruction (1863-1865), led by Lincoln;
Presidential Reconstruction (1865-1867), led by Andrew Johnson;
Radical (Congressional) Reconstruction (1867-1877).
Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan offered amnesty and restoration of rights to white southerners who swore an oath of loyalty to the Union, and allowed former Confederate states to form new governments once 10% of their 1860 voters took the oath.
After Lincoln's death, President Andrew Johnson's plan offered pardons to many former Confederates, leading to the passage of Black Codes by new southern governments to regulate the lives of former slaves.
In response, Radical Republicans in Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau and the Civil Rights Bill, overriding Johnson's vetoes.
During Congressional Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan was founded to terrorize former slaves and destroy the Republican Party in the South.
Significance:
Reconstruction led to the passage of three key Constitutional Amendments:
13th Amendment: Abolished slavery throughout the entire United States, which the Emancipation Proclamation had not done.
14th Amendment: Defined U.S. citizenship as "all persons born or naturalized in the United States" and prevented states from denying rights and privileges to any citizen.
15th Amendment: Prohibited states from denying a person the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
Reconstruction officially ended with the Compromise of 1877, where Democrats agreed not to block Rutherford B. Hayes' inauguration as president in exchange for Republicans removing federal troops from the South.
Civil War and Reconstruction Study Guide: Short Answer Questions
Fort Sumter
Bull Run
Antietam
Gettysburg
Emancipation Proclamation
Sherman’s March to the Sea
Reconstruction
Civil War Amendments
Election of 1876
Gettysburg Address
Westward Expansion
Indian Removal & Early Westward Push
Indian Removal Act (1830s):
President Andrew Jackson’s Policy: Authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west (present-day Oklahoma).
Five Civilized Tribes: Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole.
Trail of Tears:
Refers specifically to the Cherokee removal (1838–1839).
About 16,000 Cherokee were forcibly marched west; roughly 4,000 died due to disease, starvation, and exposure.
Government Promises: The U.S. government pledged Native control "as long as the grass shall grow," but Manifest Destiny soon violated that promise.
Manifest Destiny:
Definition: The belief that Americans had a divine right and duty to expand from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, spreading democracy and white civilization.
Moral Justification: Used to rationalize the displacement of Native peoples and Mexican inhabitants.
Impact: Led to wars, treaties, and rapid settlement of western territories.
Settlers Push Westward (1860s–1870s)
Motivations for Westward Expansion:
Manifest Destiny: Religious and patriotic duty to expand.
Economic Opportunity: Discovery of gold and silver (California Gold Rush, Comstock Lode).
Homestead Act (1862):
Granted 160 acres of public land to settlers who lived on and improved it for five years.
Encouraged hundreds of thousands to move west (over 600,000 families benefited).
Conflicting Views of Land:
Native Americans: Believed land could not be owned; it was sacred and communal.
Settlers: Saw land ownership as a source of status, independence, and wealth.
Result: Increasing conflict as settlers encroached on Native lands.
Government Policies & Railroad Expansion
Pacific Railway Act (1862):
Gave government loans and large land grants to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads.
Immigrant Labor: Chinese (West), Irish (East), African Americans, and Mexican Americans.
Completion: 1869, at Promontory Summit, Utah — the first Transcontinental Railroad linked the nation.
Effects of the Railroad:
Economic: Opened western markets, encouraged trade, and boosted industrialization.
Population: Towns grew along tracks; time zones were standardized.
Environmental: Buffalo herds slaughtered to clear tracks — devastating Native food sources.
Native American Resistance & the Indian Wars
Early Conflicts:
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851): Allowed U.S. travel through Native lands in exchange for promises of territorial respect (later broken).
Sand Creek Massacre (1864): Colorado militia led by Colonel John Chivington killed 270 Cheyenne—mostly women and children—despite a white flag of truce.
Major Wars and Battles:
Red River War (1874–1875): U.S. Army destroyed Comanche resistance using "scorched earth" tactics.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868): After the Bozeman Trail conflict, the U.S. guaranteed the Sioux control of the Black Hills (sacred land). This was later violated when gold was found there.
Battle of Little Bighorn (1876):
Also called "Custer’s Last Stand."
Sioux leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated Colonel Custer’s forces.
Symbol of Native resistance and U.S. military miscalculation.
Battle of Wounded Knee (1890):
Final armed conflict of the Indian Wars.
The U.S. 7th Cavalry massacred over 300 Sioux, ending armed Native resistance.
Assimilation Policies
Dawes Act (1887):
Divided tribal lands into individual family plots to encourage private land ownership.
Goal: Assimilation into white American culture (“to civilize the Indian”).
Result: Native Americans lost two-thirds of their land between 1887 and 1934.
Indian Education:
Carlisle Indian School:
Motto: “Kill the Indian, save the man.”
Students were forced to abandon Native names, languages, and customs.
Cattle Kingdom & the Cowboy Era
Rise of the Cattle Industry:
Buffalo herds eliminated → open land for cattle ranching.
Cattle ranching fueled by railroads and urban demand for beef after the Civil War.
Chisholm Trail: Major cattle route from San Antonio, TX through Oklahoma to Kansas.
Cowboy Life:
Reality: Long hours, low pay, dangerous conditions.
Myth: Romanticized by dime novels and Wild West shows.
Famous Figures: Wild Bill Hickok and Calamity Jane.
End of the Open Range:
Barbed Wire (1874, Joseph Glidden): Allowed ranchers to enclose land.
Harsh Winters (1883–1887) and droughts led to the end of open-range cattle drives.
Government Encouragement of Western Settlement
Morrill Land Grant Acts (1862 & 1890):
Provided land to states to create agricultural colleges (e.g., Oklahoma State University).
Oklahoma Land Rush (1889):
Settlers claimed over 2 million acres in a single day.
Those who entered early became known as “Sooners.”
Farmers’ Challenges and Populist Response
Economic Problems:
Deflation: Less money in circulation made debts harder to pay.
Railroads: Charged high rates for shipping and storage.
Study Guide: Chapter 19
The Urban Explosion: A Global Migration
Urbanization
Definition: Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural areas to urban industrial centers.
Statistics: Between 1870 and 1900, approximately 11 million people migrated to cities, marking a significant demographic shift.
Economic Impact: This migration attracted millions of immigrants, leading to a transformation in economic activities and a reliance on urban labor for industrial growth.
Geographic Mobility
Mortgages: Farmers often fell deep into debt.
The Grange and Farmers’ Alliances:
Oliver Hudson Kelley (1867): Founded the Grange, organized farm families, fought monopolies, and promoted cooperatives.
Colored Farmers’ National Alliance: Advocated for African American farmers in the South.
Rise of Populism (People’s Party)
Founded: 1892 — movement of the people.
Economic Reforms:
Free coinage of silver (bimetallism).
Graduated income tax.
Federal loan program.
Political Reforms:
Direct election of senators.
Secret ballot.
Single presidential terms.
Labor Reforms:
8-hour workday.
Immigration restrictions.
The Election of 1896
William McKinley (Republican): Supported the gold standard.
William Jennings Bryan (Democrat/Populist): Supported free silver; famous “Cross of Gold” speech.
Outcome: McKinley won → Populism declined, but many of its reforms later became law in the Progressive Era.
Railroad Expansion
The development of railroads allowed for easier transport of people and goods, enhancing migration.
Low Steamship Fares: Affordable travel costs enabled people from various backgrounds to seek opportunities in the United States.
Large-Scale Immigration
Statistics: Over 25 million immigrants arrived in the U.S. between 1850 and 1920.
Demographics:
Push and Pull Factors:
Push Factors: Conditions that drive people to leave their home countries:
Pull Factors: Conditions that attract immigrants to the United States…
The Journey to America
Steerage Class: Most immigrants traveled in steerage, the lowest class of accommodation on ships. Conditions were often cramped, unsanitary, and uncomfortable.
Pre-1880: Immigrants primarily came from Northern and Western Europe (e.g., Germans, Irish, English, Scandinavians).
Post-1880: Immigrants largely came from Southern and Eastern Europe (e.g., Italians, Hungarians, Eastern European Jews).
Economic Hardship: Poverty, unemployment, and economic depression, particularly in Southern Italy.
Political Persecution: Ethnic and religious conflicts, especially affecting Jews in Eastern Europe.
Military Conscription: Mandatory military service in countries like Russia.
Economic Opportunities: Jobs in industries and factories due to America's expanding economy.
Political Freedom: The allure of democracy and freedom from oppressive governments.
Family Reunification: Many immigrants sought to join family members who had previously settled in America.
Living Conditions: Steerage passengers were packed tightly together, often leading to the spread of diseases.
Duration: The journey could take several weeks, and many faced rough seas and difficult weather.
Arrival at Ellis Island
Many immigrants arrived in the U.S. through Ellis Island in New York. They underwent inspections, including health checks and legal evaluations.
Change in Immigrant Demographics
Information Sources: Immigrants relied on letters, advertisements, and word of mouth, which were not always accurate.
Settlement Patterns: Many immigrants settled in urban areas but some returned to their homelands after a period of work.
Gender Roles: Women typically emigrated as part of families, often seeking to reunite with husbands or fathers. Jewish families escaping pogroms usually stayed in the U.S.
Challenges of Urban Life
Growth of Cities
Statistics: By the late 19th century, NYC had a larger Irish population than Dublin, and Chicago became home to the largest Polish community outside Poland.
Urban Issues: Rapid urbanization led to significant challenges, including:
Response to Urban Challenges
Social Gospel Movement: This movement advocated that salvation could be achieved through helping the poor and addressing social injustices.
Settlement Houses: Community centers, such as Jane Addams' Hull House in Chicago, provided services to immigrants, including education and healthcare.
At Work in Industrial America
America’s Diverse Workers
Processing: Immigrants were examined for illnesses, and those who failed were sometimes sent back. The process was often lengthy, leading to anxiety among passengers.
Housing Shortages: Overcrowded tenements with inadequate sanitation.
Transportation Issues: Insufficient public transit systems.
Water and Sanitation: Poor access to clean water and sanitation facilities.
Crime Rates: Increased crime rates due to poverty and lack of social services.
Common Laborers
Formed the backbone of the labor force, often consisting of the most recent immigrant groups who took low-paying jobs.
Skilled Craftsmen
Occupied higher positions in the labor hierarchy but faced instability due to seasonal work.
Mechanization
Impact on Labor: The introduction of machines diminished the need for skilled workers, breaking jobs into simpler, unskilled tasks.
Industries Affected: Mechanization transformed industries such as textiles and garments, where many workers were young, unmarried women.
Women and Child Labor
Discrimination: Women were generally paid less than men and faced barriers to joining labor unions.
Child Labor Statistics: By 1900, children aged 10 to 15 made up over 18% of the industrial labor force; the prevalence of child labor continued until after World War I.
Workers Organize
Labor Movements
Emergence of Unions: The late 19th century saw the formation of various labor unions aimed at improving wages, working conditions, and job security.
Key Events
Knights of Labor: Founded in 1869, it was one of the first national labor organizations. It sought to unite all workers, irrespective of skill level, race, or gender.
Goals: Included an eight-hour workday, equal pay for equal work, and the abolition of child labor.
Approach: Preferred arbitration over strikes but did not shy away from using strikes as a last resort.
American Federation of Labor (AFL): Established in 1886, it focused on skilled workers, advocating for their specific interests.
Leadership: Led by Samuel Gompers, the AFL emphasized collective bargaining and was more pragmatic than the Knights of Labor.
Craft Unionism: Represented skilled workers from various trades, promoting better wages and working conditions through organized actions.
Pullman Strike (1894)
A nationwide railroad strike that started when the Pullman Company cut wages without reducing rents in company-owned housing.
Homestead Strike (1892)
Occurred at Carnegie Steel's Homestead plant, where workers protested wage cuts and poor working conditions.
Haymarket Affair
Background: A labor rally in Chicago advocating for the eight-hour workday turned violent when a bomb was thrown at police.
City Growth and Government
Urban Development
Public Works: Cities invested heavily in infrastructure, including roads, sewer systems, and public transportation.
Parks and Libraries: Urban parks were designed for public enjoyment, while libraries became essential educational resources.
Political Machines
Definition: Political machines were organizations that controlled local politics, often through corrupt practices, to maintain power and influence.
City Bosses: Key figures (like William Marcy "Boss" Tweed) who led these machines, providing services to constituents in exchange for votes.
Structure of Political Machines:
Outcomes: Led to federal intervention; the strike was ended with violence, highlighting tensions between labor and government.
Corruption and Graft
Bribery and Kickbacks: Political machines often engaged in corrupt practices, including granting contracts in exchange for bribes.
Election Fraud: Examples included using fake names to inflate voter rolls, leading to significant electoral manipulation.
Urban Reformers
Challenges to Machine Rule: Urban reformers sought to expose corruption and improve city governance, sometimes successfully electing reform-minded mayors.
Impact of Reform Movements: While some reforms were enacted, the political machine often regained power due to the support of immigrants and the working class.
Cultural Changes and Leisure
Changing Leisure Activities
Working-Class Leisure: Included activities in dance halls, amusement parks, and sports events, reflecting class divisions in leisure.
Baseball: Became a national pastime, serving as a unifying force across social classes.
The World's Columbian Exposition
Event Significance: The 1893 fair showcased American achievements in architecture and culture, contrasting with the realities of urban poverty.
Key Figures to Remember
Jane Addams: Founder of Hull House; advocate for social reform and settlement houses.
William Marcy "Boss" Tweed: Leader of New York’s Tammany Hall; known for corruption and political manipulation.
Samuel Gompers: Founder of the American Federation of Labor; promoted skilled labor and collective bargaining.
Chapter 20/21 Study Guide - Imperialism/SA War
All Key terms from 20/21
Imperialism
Scramble for Africa
Reasons for US Imperialism
Alfred Mahan
Josiah Strong
Anti-imperialism
Annexation of Hawaii
Reasons / Events / People involved / Outcome
Spanish American War
Causes
Background
Formal Declarations of War
Theaters of war
Rough Riders
Battles
Results (statistics)
Territory acquired
Treaty of Paris
Platt Amendment
People during S-A War: McKinley, Hay, Roosevelt, De Lome, Aguinaldo, Dewey, Pulitzer, Hearst
Asia/China
Open Door Policy
Boxers
Boxer Rebellion
Foreign Policies: Roosevelt, Taft, Wilson
Panama
Progressive Movement
Progressive Definition
Goals of Progressive
Social Welfare
Social gospel
Settlement house
YMCA/Salvation Army
Florence Kelly
Moral Reform
Economic Reform
Prohibition
Volstead Act
Speakeasy
Bootleggers
Al Capone
Muckrakers
Steffens
Riis
Tarbell
Sinclair
Efficiency
Taylor
Scientific Management
Henry Ford
Assembly Line
5$ Day
Welfare Capitalism
Child Labor Reforms
Election Reforms
Women's Suffrage
Seneca Falls
Susan B Anthony
NAWSA
Role of Western States
19th Amendment
Teddy Roosevelt
Background
Bully Pulpit
Square Deal
Trusts
Strikes
Railroads
Conservation
Meat Inspection Act
Pure Food and Drug
John Muir
Gifford Pinchot
National Reclamation Act
Civil Rights
Plessy v Ferguson
Booker T Washington
WEB Du Bois
NAACP
Election of 1908
Election of 1912
New Nationalism
Bull Moose
Wilson
Clayton Antitrust
Federal Trade Act
Amendments:
16th amendment
17th amendment
18th amendment
19th amendment
21st amendment