Notes on Population, Culture, Geopolitics, and Economic Development

Population distribution and density

  • 90% of the population lives North Of The Equator.
  • Two thirds live between twenty degrees and sixty degrees north.
  • 50% live within 125 miles of the coastline.
  • East Asia and South Asia are the highest density areas, number one and number two respectively. Europe is number three.
  • The small sliver of land in Northeast United States and Southeast Canada are number four.
  • Cities are focal points of our contemporary globalizing world.
  • Urbanized population (the percentage of a country’s population living in cities) varies greatly among and between regions.
  • By 02/2007 and certainly by 02/2009 on a global scale, more people lived in urban areas than rural ones for the first time.
  • More developed countries are typically more urban; less developed countries are typically more rural.

Population growth and change: key statistics

  • Two statistics used throughout the textbook:
    • RNI (rate of natural increase): Birth rate minus death rate expressed as a percent. Not including migration. RNI=BR−DRRNI = BR - DR
    • TFR (total fertility rate): The average number of children per woman over her reproductive years. The total fertility rate is the average number of children a woman would have if she survives all her childbearing or reproductive years.
  • Reproductive years are typically defined as ages 15–49. The note mentions age 15 as the start of childbearing years.
  • An important demographic threshold: if TFR is around or below 2.1, a population has little to no natural growth over time (replacement level).
  • TFR varies greatly around the world.
  • These indicators help assess population growth and potential aging or youth bulges in different regions.

Population structure and migration: population pyramids

  • Population pyramids are graphical devices used to compare population structure and changes between countries.
  • Example interpretations:
    • A left figure with a very wide base indicates rapid growth and a very youthful population.
    • A right figure showing a narrower base and broader top indicates population decline.
    • In the United States, females tend to outlive males, which is visible toward the top of the graph.
  • Globalization is connected to the largest migration in human history, as people move toward centers of economic activity for better opportunities.
  • Migration occurs both within regions and between regions.
  • Push factors (negative conditions driving people away): oppression, war, unemployment, natural disasters (e.g., famine, hurricanes, earthquakes).
  • Pull factors (attractive conditions drawing people in): land, jobs, freedom, better climate.
  • Most migration involves both push and pull factors.

Culture, ethnicity, and language

  • Culture: the learned and shared way of life of a group; it is learned, not innate; held in common by a group; has abstract and material dimensions (speech, religion, ideology, livelihood, value systems, language, technology, housing, foods, music).
  • Ethnicity: a shared cultural identity held by a group with a common background or history, often as a minority within a larger society; some anthropologists view ethnicity as a cross between race and culture.
  • Geography focus: emphasis on the impact of culture on the landscape rather than semantics of language or theology alone.
  • Language: language is a major characteristic that differentiates cultural groups; learning a language often reveals cultural context.
  • About half the world speaks a language within the Indo-European family (e.g., English, German, French, Spanish, Hindi, Bengali).
  • Globally, there are over 5,000 languages and about ~20 language families.
  • Mandarin is the most common individual language, followed by Spanish and then English in terms of number of speakers.
  • English often serves as a lingua franca—an agreed-upon world language to facilitate international communication (e.g., airline traffic control uses English).
  • Historical note: in the 19th century the lingua franca was French; in the 20th century it shifted to English.

Religion

  • Universalizing religions attempt to appeal to all peoples (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Buddhism).
  • Ethnic religions are closely identified with particular ethnic groups (e.g., Judaism, Hinduism) and are often inherited.
  • Christianity is the world's largest religion by area and adherents.
  • Islam is not homogeneous and has two major branches: Shia and Sunni.
  • Judaism is the parent religion of Christianity and is related to Islam.
  • Hinduism is polytheistic and dominant in India.
  • Buddhism emerged from Hinduism and has two major branches, dominant in East and Southeast Asia.
  • Secularism is increasing in some parts of the world (nonreligious or atheistic views).
  • From a landscape perspective, religious practice leaves tangible cultural markers (churches, mosques, shrines, cemeteries) and influences food and clothing.

Culture in a globalizing world: diffusion and tensions

  • Cultural diffusion: transfer of culture from one place to another, often via human migration; tension may exist when cultures interact.
  • Three terms to study culture in a globalizing world:
    • Cultural imperialism: active promotion of one cultural system at the expense of another (historically via European colonization; today via global brands like McDonald’s or widespread use of English online).
    • Cultural nationalism: protecting and defending a cultural system against perceived dilution or offense, while promoting national/local cultural values (discussion in France and in Muslim-majority countries).
    • Cultural hybrids: blending of cultures resulting from interaction, sometimes called cultural syncretism or hybridization.

Geopolitics and political geography

  • Geopolitics describes close linkages between geography and politics; focuses on how political power interacts with territory at all scales.
  • Key terms:
    • State: in geopolitics, often used to mean a political unit akin to a country.
    • Head of state: the leader (e.g., president) in a country.
    • Nation: a group of people who share a culture.
    • Nation-state: a relatively homogeneous cultural group with its own independent political territory (e.g., Japan, France, Egypt).
  • Example: Kurds are a nation without a state—a nation occupying lands across four states (Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran) and thus a minority within each country.
  • Colonialism and decolonization are important themes:
    • Colonialism: formal establishment of rule over a foreign population.
    • Decolonization: colonies gaining or regaining control over their territory and establishing independent government.
    • Neocolonialism: newly independent states remaining or becoming dependent on more powerful states.

Economic development and development indicators

  • Thematic map: More and Less Developed Countries (MDCs vs LDCs): light yellow for lower-income countries and light to dark purple for higher-income countries.
  • Economic development brings varying levels of prosperity; some states are more prosperous than others.
  • Terms now preferred: MDCs (More Developed Countries) and LDCs (Less Developed Countries); First, Second, and Third World are relic terms from the Cold War.
  • Key economic terms:
    • GDP (Gross Domestic Product): the value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a year.
    • GNI (Gross National Income): GDP plus net income from abroad (trade and other income flows).
    • GNI per capita: GNI divided by the population, i.e., the average income per person.
    • Both GDP and GNI are imperfect measures because they undervalue non-cash transactions (barter, household work, etc.).
  • To improve cross-country comparisons, local currencies and purchasing power are sometimes used; frequently discussed alongside GNI and HDI.
  • HDI (Human Development Index): United Nations index measuring social development by combining data on life expectancy, literacy and educational attainment, gender equality, and income.
  • HDI components:
    • Life expectancy
    • Literacy
    • Educational attainment
    • Gender equity
    • Income
  • Critics of HDI argue it overlooks within-country diversity of development, but it provides a reasonable overall sense of human and social development.
  • Relationship between HDI and GDP/GNI per capita: they are not absolutely the same, but they tend to be highly correlated; maps of HDI and GDP/GNI per capita often show similar patterns when compared (switching back and forth reveals correlation).
  • Note: While GDP and GNI quantify economic activity, HDI adds social dimensions to reflect overall human development.

Formulas and key relationships (summary)

  • Population growth and structure:
    • RNI=BR−DRRNI = BR - DR
    • TFR=extaveragenumberofchildrenperwomanoverreproductiveyears(roughlyages15−49)TFR = ext{average number of children per woman over reproductive years (roughly ages 15-49)}
    • Replacement-level fertility is approximately TFR≈2.1TFR \approx 2.1 for many populations.
  • Economic indicators:
    • GDP: value of all final goods/services produced domestically in a year.
    • GNI: GDP + net income from abroad.
    • GNI per capita: GNI per capita=GNIpopulation\text{GNI per capita} = \frac{\text{GNI}}{\text{population}}
  • HDI components are combined into a single index (life expectancy, education, income, and gender equality). HDI is often used alongside GDP/GNI per capita to assess development.