Learning and Memory Notes

Learning

How Do We Learn?

Classical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning: A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
• Pavlov's Experiments:
  • Demonstrated classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.
  • Observed that dogs salivated not only to the taste of food but also to stimuli associated with food.

Extending Pavlov's Understanding

• Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli.

Pavlov's Legacy

• Pavlov's work provided a foundation for understanding how organisms learn to predict events in their environment.

Classical Conditioning Terms

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

Classical Conditioning: The Principle

• Before Conditioning:
  • Food (Unconditioned Stimulus - US) $\rightarrow$ Salivation (Unconditioned Response - UR).
  • Tone (Conditioned Stimulus - CS) $\rightarrow$ No salivation (No response or irrelevant response).
• During Conditioning:
  • Tone (CS) + Food (US) $\rightarrow$ Salivation (UR).
• After Conditioning:
  • Tone (CS) $\rightarrow$ Salivation (Conditioned Response - CR).

Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
• Skinner’s Experiments:
  • B.F. Skinner explored operant conditioning principles using animals.
• Extending Skinner’s Understanding
• Skinner’s Legacy
• Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning
  • Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US).
  • Operant conditioning forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Extinction

• When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), the CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

Spontaneous Recovery

• After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

Latent Learning

• Cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Learning by Observation

• Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
• Bandura's Experiments:
  • Albert Bandura conducted experiments on observational learning, particularly focusing on modeling.
• Applications of Observational Learning

Memory

• Memory is essential for recognizing people, understanding language, and retaining personal identity.
• Without memory, everything would be unfamiliar, and every task would be new.

Stages of Memory

• Memory involves three stages:
  • Encoding: Processing information into the memory system.
  • Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
  • Retrieval: Getting information out of memory storage.
• Analogy:
  • Encoding $\approx$ Keyboard
  • Storage $\approx$ Disk
  • Retrieval $\approx$ Monitor
  • Memory is a sequential process.

Organizing Information for Encoding

• Techniques to enhance encoding:
  1. Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
  2. Hierarchy: Breaking down complex information into broad concepts and further subdividing them into categories and subcategories.

Chunking

• Chunking involves organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurring automatically.
• Acronyms are a form of chunking.
  • HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
  • PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
  • ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

Hierarchy

• Complex information is broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.
• Example:
  • Metals
    • Rare
    • Common
    • Alloys
  • Minerals
  • Stones
    • Precious
    • Masonry

Capacity

• Short-term memory capacity is limited.
• You should be able to recall $7 \pm 2$ letters.
• "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information" (1956) - George Miller.
• Example: M U T G I K T L R S Y P

Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity.
• Estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986).
• The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

Memory Stores Feature

Implicit Memory

• HM (a patient) learned the Tower of Hanoi game after surgery, but he couldn't remember playing it before.
• HM could not form new declarative (explicit) memories but could form new procedural (implicit) memories.