All Vocab 1-6

common goods goods that all people may use but that are of limited supply

democracy a form of government where political power rests in the hands of the people

direct democracy a form of government where people participate directly in making government decisions instead of choosing representatives to do this for them

elite theory claims political power rests in the hands of a small, elite group of people

government the means by which a society organizes itself and allocates authority in order to accomplish collective goals

ideology the beliefs and ideals that help to shape political opinion and eventually policy

intense preferences beliefs and preferences based on strong feelings regarding an issue that someone adheres to over time

latent preferences beliefs and preferences people are not deeply committed to and that change over time majority rule a fundamental principle of democracy; the majority should have the power to make decisions binding upon the whole

minority rights protections for those who are not part of the majority

monarchy a form of government where one ruler, usually a hereditary one, holds political power

oligarchy a form of government where a handful of elite society members hold political power

partisanship strong support, or even blind allegiance, for a particular political party

pluralist theory claims political power rests in the hands of groups of people

political power influence over a government’s institutions, leadership, or policies

politics the process by which we decide how resources will be allocated and which policies government will strong support, or even blind allegiance, for a particular political party claims political power rests in the hands of groups of people influence over a government’s institutions, leadership, or policies pursue

private goods goods provided by private businesses that can be used only by those who pay for them

public goods goods provided by government that anyone can use and that are available to all without charge representative democracy a form of government where voters elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on behalf of all the people instead of allowing people to vote directly on laws

social capital connections with others and the willingness to interact and aid them

toll good a good that is available to many people but is used only by those who can pay the price to do so

totalitarianism a form of government where government is all-powerful and citizens have no rights

New Jersey Plan a plan that called for a one-house national legislature; each state would receive one vote

republic a form of government in which political power rests in the hands of the people, not a monarch, and is exercised by elected representatives

reserved powers any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national government; powers reserved to the states and denied to the federal government

separation of powers the sharing of powers among three separate branches of government

social contract an agreement between people and government in which citizens consent to be governed so long as the government protects their natural rights

supremacy clause the statement in Article VI of the Constitution that federal law is superior to laws passed by state legislatures

The Federalist Papers a collection of eighty-five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in support of ratification of the Constitution

Three-Fifths Compromise a compromise between northern and southern states that called for counting of all a state’s free population and 60 percent of its enslaved population for both federal taxation and representation in Congress

unicameral legislature a legislature with only one house, like the Confederation Congress or the legislature proposed by the New Jersey Plan

veto the power of the president to reject a law proposed by Congress

Virginia Plan a plan for a two-house legislature; representatives would be elected to the lower house based on each state’s population; representatives for the upper house would be chosen by the lower house

bill of attainder a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; prohibited under the Constitution

block grant a type of grant that comes with less stringent federal administrative conditions and provide recipients more latitude over how to spend grant funds

categorical grant a federal transfer formulated to limit recipients’ discretion in the use of funds and subject them to strict administrative criteria

concurrent powers shared state and federal powers that range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems

cooperative federalism a style of federalism in which both levels of government coordinate their actions to solve national problems, leading to the blending of layers as in a marble cake

creeping categorization a process in which the national government attaches new administrative requirements to block grants or supplants them with new categorical grants

devolution a process in which powers from the central government in a unitary system are delegated to subnational units

dual federalism a style of federalism in which the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction, creating a layer-cake view of federalism

elastic clause the last clause of Article I, Section 8, which enables the national government “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out all its constitutional responsibilities

ex post facto law a law that criminalizes an act retroactively; prohibited under the Constitution

federalism an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on the people with authority granted by the national constitution

full faith and credit clause found in Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution, this clause requires states to accept court decisions, public acts, and contracts of other states; also referred to as the comity provision

general revenue sharing a type of federal grant that places minimal restrictions on how state and local governments spend the money

immigration federalism the gradual movement of states into the immigration policy domain traditionally handled by the federal government

new federalism a style of federalism premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves outcomes

nullification a doctrine promoted by John Calhoun of South Carolina in the 1830s, asserting that if a state deems a federal law unconstitutional, it can nullify it within its borders

privileges and immunities clause found in Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, this clause prohibits states from discriminating against out-of-staters by denying such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, and property and travel rights

race-to-the-bottom a dynamic in which states compete to attract business by lowering taxes and regulations, often to workers’ detriment

unfunded mandates federal laws and regulations that impose obligations on state and local governments without fully compensating them for the costs of implementation

unitary system a centralized system of government in which the subnational government is dependent on the central government, where substantial authority is concentrated

venue shopping a strategy in which interest groups select the level and branch of government they calculate will be most receptive to their policy goals

writ of habeas corpus a petition that enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal

blue law a law originally created to uphold a religious or moral standard, such as a prohibition against selling alcohol on Sundays

civil liberties limitations on the power of government, designed to ensure personal freedoms

civil rights guarantees of equal treatment by government authorities

common-law right a right of the people rooted in legal tradition and past court rulings, rather than the Constitution

conscientious objector a person who claims the right to refuse to perform military service on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion

double jeopardy a prosecution pursued twice at the same level of government for the same criminal action

due process clause provisions of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments that limit government power to deny people “life, liberty, or property” on an unfair basis

economic liberty the right of individuals to obtain, use, and trade things of value for their own benefit

eminent domain the power of government to take or use property for a public purpose after compensating its owner; also known as the takings clause of the Fifth Amendment

establishment clause the provision of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from endorsing a state-sponsored religion; interpreted as preventing government from favoring some religious beliefs over others or religion over non-religion

exclusionary rule a requirement, from Supreme Court case Mapp v. Ohio, that evidence obtained as a result of an illegal search or seizure cannot be used to try someone for a crime

free exercise clause the provision of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from regulating religious beliefs and practices

Miranda warning a statement by law enforcement officers informing a person arrested, or subject to interrogation, of that person's rights

obscenity acts or statements that are extremely offensive by contemporary standards

Patriot Act a law passed by Congress in the wake of the 9/11 attacks that broadened federal powers to monitor electronic communications; the full name is the USA PATRIOT Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act)

plea bargain an agreement between the defendant and the prosecutor in which the defendant pleads guilty to the charge(s) in question or perhaps to less serious charges, in exchange for more lenient punishment than if convicted after a full trial

prior restraint a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding people to publish a book they plan to release)

probable cause legal standard for determining whether a search or seizure is constitutional or a crime has been committed; a lower threshold than the standard of proof needed at a criminal trial

right to privacy the right to be free of government intrusion

search warrant a legal document, signed by a judge, allowing police to search and/or seize persons or property

selective incorporation the gradual process of making some guarantees of the Bill of Rights (so far) apply to state governments and the national government

self-incrimination an action or statement that admits guilt or responsibility for a crime

Sherbert test a standard for deciding whether a law violates the free exercise clause; a law will be struck down unless there is a “compelling governmental interest” at stake and it accomplishes its goal by the “least restrictive means” possible

symbolic speech a form of expression that does not use writing or speech but nonetheless communicates an idea (e.g., wearing an article of clothing to show solidarity with a group)

undue burden test a means of deciding whether a law that makes it harder for women to seek abortions is constitutional

affirmative action the use of programs and policies designed to assist groups that have historically been subject to discrimination

American Indian Movement (AIM) the Native American civil rights group responsible for the occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973

Black codes laws passed immediately after the Civil War that discriminated against freed people and other African Americans and deprived them of their rights

Brown v. Board of Education the 1954 Supreme Court ruling that struck down Plessy v. Ferguson and declared segregation and “separate but equal” to be unconstitutional in public education

Chicano a term adopted by some Mexican American civil rights activists to describe themselves and those like them

civil disobedience an action taken in violation of the letter of the law to demonstrate that the law is unjust

comparable worth a doctrine calling for the same pay for workers whose jobs require the same level of education, responsibility, training, or working conditions

coverture a legal status of married women in which their separate legal identities were erased

de facto segregation segregation that results from the private choices of individuals

de jure segregation segregation that results from government discrimination

direct action civil rights campaigns that directly confronted segregationist practices through public demonstrations

disenfranchisement the revocation of someone’s right to vote

equal protection clause a provision of the Fourteenth Amendment that requires the states to treat all residents equally under the law

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) the proposed amendment to the Constitution that would have prohibited all discrimination based on sex

glass ceiling an invisible barrier caused by discrimination that prevents women from rising to the highest levels of an organization—including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious organizations

grandfather clause the provision in some southern states that allowed illiterate White people to vote because their ancestors had been able to vote before the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified

hate crime harassment, bullying, or other criminal acts directed against someone because of bias against that person’s sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, race, ethnicity, or disability

intermediate scrutiny the standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on gender and sex; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate an important governmental interest is at stake in treating men differently from women

Jim Crow laws state and local laws that promoted racial segregation and undermined Black voting rights in the south after Reconstruction

literacy tests tests that required the prospective voter in some states to be able to read a passage of text and answer questions about it; often used as a way to disenfranchise racial or ethnic minorities

Plessy v. Ferguson the 1896 Supreme Court ruling that allowed “separate but equal” racial segregation under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

poll tax annual tax imposed by some states before a person was allowed to vote

rational basis test the standard used by the courts to decide most forms of discrimination; the burden of proof is on those challenging the law or action to demonstrate there is no good reason for treating them differently from other citizens

Reconstruction the period from 1865 to 1877 during which the governments of Confederate states were reorganized prior to being readmitted to the Union

Stonewall Inn a bar in Greenwich Village, New York, where the modern Gay Pride movement began after rioters protested the police treatment of the LGBTQ community there

strict scrutiny the standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, or religion; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate a compelling governmental interest is at stake and no alternative means are available to accomplish its goals

Title IX the section of the U.S. Education Amendments of 1972 that prohibits discrimination in education on the basis of sex

Trail of Tears the name given to the forced migration of the Cherokees from Georgia to Oklahoma in 1838–1839

understanding tests tests requiring prospective voters in some states to be able to explain the meaning of a passage of text or to answer questions related to citizenship; often used as a way to disenfranchise Black voters

white primary a primary election in which only White people are allowed to vote

agent of political socialization a person or entity that teaches and influences others about politics through use of information

bandwagon effect increased media coverage of candidates who poll high

Bradley effect the difference between a poll result and an election result in which voters gave a socially desirable poll response rather than a true response that might be perceived as racist

classical liberalism a political ideology based on belief in individual liberties and rights and the idea of free will, with little role for government

communism a political and economic system in which, in theory, government promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials to prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society; in practice, most communist governments have used force to maintain control

covert content ideologically slanted information presented as unbiased information in order to influence public opinion

diffuse support the widespread belief that a country and its legal system are legitimate

exit poll an election poll taken by interviewing voters as they leave a polling place

fascism a political system of total control by the ruling party or political leader over the economy, the military, society, and culture and often the private lives of citizens

favorability poll a public opinion poll that measures a public’s positive feelings about a candidate or politician

heuristics shortcuts or generalizations for decision making

horserace coverage day-to-day media coverage of candidate performance in the election

leading question a question worded to lead a respondent to give a desired answer

margin of error a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual preferences of the total population of citizens

modern conservatism a political ideology that prioritizes individual liberties, preferring a smaller government that stays out of the economy

modern liberalism a political ideology focused on equality and supporting government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality

overt content political information whose author makes clear that only one side is presented

political culture the prevailing political attitudes and beliefs within a society or region

political elite a political opinion leader who alerts the public to changes or problems

political socialization the process of learning the norms and practices of a political system through others and societal institutions

public opinion a collection of opinions of an individual or a group of individuals on a topic, person, or event

push poll politically biased campaign information presented as a poll in order to change minds

random sample a limited number of people from the overall population selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen

representative sample a group of respondents demographically similar to the population of interest

socialism a political and economic system in which government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic services and equal opportunities and requiring citizens with more wealth to contribute more

straw poll an informal and unofficial election poll conducted with a non-random population

theory of delegate representation a theory that assumes the politician is in office to be the voice of the people and to vote only as the people want

traditional conservatism a political ideology supporting the authority of the monarchy and the church in the belief that government provides the rule of law

ballot fatigue the result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of a long ballot

caucus a form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election; usually reserved for presidential elections

chronic minority voters who belong to political parties that tend not to be competitive in national elections because they are too small to become a majority or because of the Electoral College system distribution in their state

closed primary an election in which only voters registered with a party may vote for that party’s candidates

coattail effect the result when a popular presidential candidate helps candidates from the same party win their own elections

delegates party members who are chosen to represent a particular candidate at the party’s state- or national-level nominating convention

district system the means by which electoral votes are divided between candidates based on who wins districts and/or the state

early voting an accommodation that allows voting up to two weeks before Election Day

Electoral College the constitutionally created group of individuals, chosen by the states, with the responsibility of formally selecting the next U.S. president

incumbency advantage the advantage held by officeholders that allows them to often win reelection

incumbent the current holder of a political office

initiative law or constitutional amendment proposed and passed by the voters and subject to review by the state courts; also called a proposition

midterm elections the congressional elections that occur in the even-numbered years between presidential election years, in the middle of the president’s term

open primary an election in which any registered voter may vote in any party’s primary or caucus

platform the set of issues important to the political party and the party delegates

political action committees (PACs) organizations created to raise money for political campaigns and spend money to influence policy and politics

recall the removal of a politician or government official by the voters

referendum a yes or no vote by citizens on a law or candidate proposed by the state government

residency requirement the stipulation that citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before a citizen can register to vote as a resident of that state

shadow campaign a campaign run by political action committees and other organizations without the coordination of the candidate

straight-ticket voting the practice of voting only for candidates from the same party

super PACs officially known as Independent Expenditure-Only Committees; organizations that can fundraise and spend as they please to support or attack a candidate but not contribute directly to a candidate or strategize with a candidate’s campaign

top-two primary a primary election in which the two candidates with the most votes, regardless of party, become the nominees for the general election

voter fatigue the result when voters grow tired of voting and stay home from the polls

voting-age population the number of citizens over eighteen

voting-eligible population the number of citizens eligible to vote

winner-take-all system all electoral votes for a state are given to the candidate who wins the most votes in that state