World History

Middle East

Mesopotamia

  • Historical Background: First urban civilization.

  • Geography: Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

  • Political Organization: City-states like Sumer.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Polytheistic.

  • Art/Intellectual: Ziggurats, cuneiform.

  • Social Structure: Kings, priests, merchants, slaves.

  • Decline: Conquest by neighboring powers.

Egypt

  • Historical Background: Unified under pharaohs.

  • Geography: Nile River Valley.

  • Political Organization: Centralized under god-kings.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Polytheism, afterlife focus.

  • Art/Intellectual: Pyramids, hieroglyphics.

  • Social Structure: Pharaoh at top; women had notable rights.

  • Decline: Conquests by Persia, Rome.

Persian Empire

  1. Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE)

    • Historical Background: Founded by Cyrus the Great; known for tolerance and administrative skill.

    • Geography: Spanned from the Indus Valley to Greece.

    • Political Organization: Satrapies (provinces) governed by satraps; centralized under the king.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Zoroastrianism, dualistic belief in Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu.

    • Art/Intellectual: Persepolis, Royal Road, qanats (irrigation).

    • Social Structure: King at the top, followed by nobles, commoners, and slaves.

    • Decline: Conquered by Alexander the Great.

  2. Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE)

    • Historical Background: Revived Persian traditions after the Parthians.

    • Geography: Covered modern-day Iran and beyond.

    • Political Organization: Centralized bureaucracy.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Zoroastrianism as state religion.

    • Art/Intellectual: Advancements in medicine, astronomy, and architecture.

    • Social Structure: Feudal; women’s roles diminished over time.

    • Decline: Conquered by Arab Muslims.

Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE)

  • Historical Background: First major Islamic caliphate after the Rashidun Caliphate.

  • Geography: Spanned from Spain to Central Asia.

  • Political Organization: Centralized; Arab elite dominance.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Islam (Sunni); allowed People of the Book to pay jizya (tax).

  • Art/Intellectual: Dome of the Rock; Arabic became an administrative language.

  • Social Structure: Arabs privileged over non-Arabs.

  • Decline: Overthrown by the Abbasids due to internal dissent.

Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE)

  • Historical Background: Overthrew the Umayyads; golden age of Islam.

  • Geography: Focused on Baghdad as the capital.

  • Political Organization: Centralized with bureaucratic administration.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Islam flourished; incorporation of Greek philosophy, Sufism.

  • Art/Intellectual: House of Wisdom, algebra, astronomy.

  • Social Structure: Cosmopolitan; more integration of non-Arabs.

  • Decline: Mongol invasion, fragmentation into smaller states.

Mediterranean

Greek City-States (Athens and Sparta)

  1. Athens

    • Historical Background: Birthplace of democracy.

    • Geography: Coastal city-state in Attica.

    • Political Organization: Direct democracy; citizens could vote.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Polytheistic; home of philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.

    • Art/Intellectual: Parthenon, tragedies, and comedies in theater.

    • Social Structure: Citizens, metics (foreigners), and slaves; limited role for women.

    • Decline: Conquered by Macedonia after the Peloponnesian War.

  2. Sparta

    • Historical Background: Militaristic and oligarchic.

    • Geography: Inland in Laconia.

    • Political Organization: Ruled by two kings and a council of elders.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Polytheistic with an emphasis on martial values.

    • Art/Intellectual: Focused on warfare, less on arts.

    • Social Structure: Rigid hierarchy; helots (serfs), limited rights for women but more freedom than in Athens.

    • Decline: Loss of dominance after the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE).

Alexander the Great’s Empire (336–323 BCE)

  • Historical Background: Unified Greek city-states and created a vast empire.

  • Geography: Spanned from Greece to India.

  • Political Organization: Centralized under Alexander but short-lived.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Spread of Hellenism (Greek culture and ideas).

  • Art/Intellectual: Fusion of Greek and Eastern cultures, Alexandria as a cultural hub.

  • Social Structure: Multicultural elite; mixed marriages encouraged.

  • Decline: Fragmented into successor states after Alexander’s death.

Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) and Empire (27 BCE–476 CE)

  • Historical Background: Republic formed after overthrowing monarchy; transitioned to Empire under Augustus.

  • Geography: Spanned Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.

  • Political Organization: Republic—Senate and consuls; Empire—centralized under emperors.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Polytheism, later Christianity.

  • Art/Intellectual: Engineering (aqueducts, Colosseum), Latin literature.

  • Social Structure: Patricians, plebeians, and slaves; women had limited roles but more freedom in the Empire.

  • Decline: Overextension, internal strife, barbarian invasions.

Africa

West African Kingdoms (Ghana, Mali, Songhai)

  1. Ghana (300–1200 CE)

    • Historical Background: Early trade hub for gold and salt.

    • Geography: Western Sahel region.

    • Political Organization: Monarchy.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Indigenous beliefs; later Islamic influence.

    • Art/Intellectual: Goldwork, oral traditions.

    • Decline: Invasions and loss of trade dominance.

  2. Mali (1235–1600 CE)

    • Historical Background: Known for Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage.

    • Geography: Niger River region.

    • Political Organization: Centralized under rulers like Sundiata.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Islam spread through trade.

    • Art/Intellectual: Timbuktu as a learning center.

    • Decline: Internal conflicts and Songhai rise.

  3. Songhai (1464–1591 CE)

    • Historical Background: Expanded under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad.

    • Geography: West African savanna.

    • Political Organization: Strong centralized government.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Islam as state religion.

    • Art/Intellectual: Universities in Timbuktu.

    • Decline: Moroccan invasion.

East African Kingdoms (Axum, Zimbabwe)

  1. Axum (100–940 CE)

    • Historical Background: Trading empire with Red Sea access.

    • Geography: Modern Ethiopia/Eritrea.

    • Political Organization: Monarchy.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Converted to Christianity in 4th century.

    • Art/Intellectual: Obelisks, Ge’ez script.

    • Decline: Environmental changes, Islamic trade competition.

  2. Zimbabwe (1100–1500 CE)

    • Historical Background: Known for Great Zimbabwe.

    • Geography: Southern Africa.

    • Political Organization: Centralized kingdom.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Indigenous beliefs.

    • Art/Intellectual: Stone architecture.

    • Decline: Overgrazing, trade shifts.

Mesoamerican - Olmec (1200–400 BCE)

  • Historical Background: First Mesoamerican civilization.

  • Geography: Gulf Coast of Mexico.

  • Political Organization: Likely theocratic city-states.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Polytheistic; focus on jaguar gods.

  • Art/Intellectual: Colossal stone heads, early hieroglyphs.

  • Social Structure: Priests and elites at the top.

Decline: Environmental factors, possibly internal conflict.

East Asia

Chinese Dynasties

  1. Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE)

    • Historical Background: First verified Chinese dynasty, known for oracle bones and ancestor worship.

    • Geography: Centered on the Yellow River Valley.

    • Political Organization: Ruled by a king supported by warrior aristocracy.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Animism, ancestor worship, and Shang Di (supreme god).

    • Art/Intellectual: Bronze casting, jade carving, and early Chinese script.

    • Social Structure: Rigid hierarchy; women occasionally held power.

    • Decline: Overthrown by the Zhou due to internal strife and invasions.

  2. Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE)

    • Historical Background: Introduced the "Mandate of Heaven."

    • Geography: Expanded beyond the Shang territory.

    • Political Organization: Feudal system; decentralized power.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Confucianism and Daoism emerged.

    • Art/Intellectual: Iron tools, poetry, and the "Book of Songs."

    • Social Structure: Landowners and peasants; patriarchal society.

    • Decline: Warring States period led to its collapse.

  3. Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)

    • Historical Background: Unified China under Qin Shi Huang.

    • Geography: Expanded territorial boundaries.

    • Political Organization: Centralized autocracy, legalism as state philosophy.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Legalism dominated; suppression of Confucianism.

    • Art/Intellectual: Terracotta Army, Great Wall construction began.

    • Social Structure: Military hierarchy; peasantry heavily taxed.

    • Decline: Harsh rule led to rebellion.

  4. Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)

    • Historical Background: Golden age of China.

    • Geography: Trade on the Silk Road expanded.

    • Political Organization: Bureaucratic administration.

    • Religion/Philosophy: Confucianism as state ideology.

    • Art/Intellectual: Paper invention, historical writing, medicine.

    • Social Structure: Scholar-gentry class; women’s status remained subordinate.

    • Decline: Internal corruption, peasant uprisings, and invasions.

Europe

Byzantine Empire (330–1453 CE)

  • Historical Background: Successor of the Roman Empire.

  • Geography: Centered on Constantinople, controlled Eastern Mediterranean.

  • Political Organization: Centralized empire with a strong bureaucracy.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Orthodox Christianity, theological debates.

  • Art/Intellectual: Hagia Sophia, mosaics, preservation of Greek/Roman texts.

  • Social Structure: Emperors at the top; hierarchical, but women like Empress Theodora held influence.

  • Decline: Attacks from Ottomans, internal strife, loss of territory.

Medieval Western Europe

  • Historical Background: Fragmented after the fall of Rome; feudalism emerged.

  • Geography: Varied terrain, fertile areas in France and Italy.

  • Political Organization: Decentralized; power divided among kings, lords, and the Church.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Dominated by Catholicism.

  • Art/Intellectual: Gothic cathedrals, monastic learning, chivalry.

  • Social Structure: Feudal hierarchy; limited rights for women.

  • End of the Middle Ages: Renaissance, Black Death, and weakening feudalism.

South Asia

Mohenjo Daro and Harappa (Indus Valley Civilization, 2500–1500 BCE)

  • Historical Background: Early urban culture.

  • Geography: Along the Indus River.

  • Political Organization: Likely organized city-states.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Proto-Hindu practices.

  • Art/Intellectual: Planned cities, drainage systems, seals.

  • Social Structure: Stratified, though unclear.

  • Decline: Environmental changes, invasions.

Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE)

  • Historical Background: Unified most of India under Chandragupta.

  • Geography: Spanned the subcontinent.

  • Political Organization: Centralized rule.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Buddhism under Ashoka.

  • Art/Intellectual: Pillars of Ashoka, Buddhist art.

  • Social Structure: Caste system.

  • Decline: Weak leadership post-Ashoka.

Gupta Empire (320–550 CE)

  • Historical Background: Golden age of Hindu culture.

  • Geography: Northern India.

  • Political Organization: Decentralized under local rulers.

  • Religion/Philosophy: Hinduism; advancements in mathematics.

  • Art/Intellectual: Sanskrit literature, Ajanta caves.

  • Social Structure: Strengthened caste system.

Decline: Huna invasions.