Rise of Nationalism, the Making of Pakistan, and Global History Study Guide
HINDU REVIVALIST AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS
Brahmo Samaj Movement (1828): * Founder: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, recognized as the first major Hindu social reformer in India. * Core Objectives: Simplification of the Hindu religion and society. * Key Reforms: It successfully advocated for the abandonment of idol worship and the caste system. * Sati Practice: The movement struggled for the abolition of the brutal Sati practice among Hindus. * Educational Contributions: In 1817, Ram Mohan Roy established the Hindu College in Calcutta, the first modern educational institution. He also founded the Anglo-Vedic School (1822) and the Vedanta College (1826) to integrate modern scientific knowledge with Hindu religion.
Arya Samaj Movement (1875): * Founder: Dayananda Sarasvati. * Primary Objective: To rekindle the teachings of the ancient sacred Hindu texts known as the Vedas. * Opposition to Traditional Practices: Vehemently opposed idol worship, animal sacrifice, the birth-based caste system, untouchability, child marriage, and temple offerings. * Monotheism: Emphasized the worship of a single, formless God. * Literature: Sarasvati’s book, 'Satyarth Prakash' (The Light of Truth), was fundamental in propagating these ideas. * Social Initiatives: Promoted female education, inter-caste marriages, and established orphanages and widow homes. Established a network of schools and colleges to modernize education. * Militant Shift: Over time, its heavy focus on Hindu revivalism led to a more militant form, causing tensions with Muslims and Christians.
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM AND THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
Definition of Nationalism: The idea of state ownership where a nation governs itself independently, free from external interference. It fosters unity through shared culture, history, and language.
Context in India: Growth in political awareness flourished in the second half of the 19th century, spurred by the British government's condescending attitude.
Indian National Congress (1885): * Founder: A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant (served as organizer from 1885 to 1892). * Main Objectives: Strengthening national unity across provinces, religions, and castes; formulating and presenting popular demands to the British; mobilizing public opinion; and creating a unified platform for Indian voices. * Evolution: Initially ignored by the British as a small group of educated Indians, it became the most influential voice of Indian nationalism by the early 20th century.
MUSLIM POLITICAL AWAKENING AND THE PARTITION OF BENGAL
Partition of Bengal (1905): * Context: Bengal was the largest province and deemed too large to be administered effectively. * Action: Partitioned by Viceroy Lord Curzon in 1905. * Outcome: Two new provinces were created: 1. East Bengal and Assam (Capital: Dacca). 2. West Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (Capital: Calcutta). * Muslim Perspective: Muslims became the majority in East Bengal, offering freedom from Hindu economic dominance and improved opportunities in agriculture and employment. * Hindu Perspective: Hindu landlords and businessmen in West Bengal faced hardships. The Congress launched vigorous protests and the Swadeshi Movement (boycott of British goods). * Annulment (1911): British government reversed the partition in 1911 due to sustained Hindu pressure.
Simla Deputation (October 1906): * Delegates: Muslim leaders led by Agha Khan III. * Demands: Met Viceroy Lord Minto to request separate representation for Muslims in district boards, municipalities, and legislative councils. * Result: Minto responded positively, leading to the formation of a Muslim political identity.
All India Muslim League (1906): * Formation: Established in December 1906 in Dacca; second session in Karachi in 1907. * Primary Objectives: Promote loyalty to the British, represent Muslim interests, and act as a bridge between Muslims and other communities. * Strategic Shift: Eventually shifted from loyalty to advocating for the nationalism of Indian Muslims, playing a vital role in the creation of Pakistan.
CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS AND ESCALATING TENSIONS
Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909): * Context: Response to the unrest of 1905-1906. * Changes: Imperial Legislative Council enlarged from to members. Provincial councils in larger states enlarged to members ( for smaller states). * Significance: Introduced separate electorates for Muslims and other minorities. However, final decision-making power remained with the British.
Lucknow Pact (1916): * Significance: First formal agreement between Congress and Muslim League. * Role of Jinnah: Persistence led Congress to recognize the League as the representative of Muslims. * Outcome: Congress agreed to separate electorates; both parties presented common demands to the British.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): * Features: Viceroy advised by members (including Indians); Bicameral legislature; Diarchy at the provincial level (Reserved subjects under British control, Transferred subjects under provincial councils); System of communal electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and Christians. * Indian Reaction: Rejected as "inadequate, unsatisfactory, and disappointing" because actual power stayed with the British.
REPRESSION AND MASS MOVEMENTS (1919-1924)
The Rowlatt Act (March 1919): Imposed emergency measures such as arrest without warrant, detention without bail, and house arrest to control revolutionary activity in Bengal, Bombay, and Punjab. Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest.
Amritsar Massacre (April 13, 1919): * Location: Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar. * Event: A crowd gathered for the Baisakhi Festival and to protest the Rowlatt Act. * Action: General Dyer ordered soldiers to fire on the unarmed crowd at the only narrow entrance without warning. * Casualties: Hundreds killed, thousands wounded. Dyer was removed from service but not further punished, causing a major rift between Indians and the British.
Khilafat Movement (1919-1924): * Purpose: To protect the Caliphate (Khalifa) and holy places of Islam after the Ottoman defeat in WWI. * Leaders: Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali, Gandhi. * End: Abolished in 1924 by Kemal Ataturk, ending the movement in India.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): Launched by Gandhi. Involved boycotting British schools, courts, and goods. Suspended in February 1922 after the Chauri-Chaura Incident, where an infuriated mob burned a police station, killing policemen.
Hijrat Movement: Encouraged Muslims to migrate from British-controlled India to the NWFP and Afghanistan to escape British rule.
THE DRIVE FOR A SEPARATE HOMELAND (1927-1940)
Simon Commission (1927): Seven British MPs sent to investigate reforms; no Indians included. Faced massive protests and 'Simon Go Back' slogans.
Nehru Report (1928): Drafted by Motilal Nehru. Demanded dominion status, opposed separate electorates, and suggested Hindi as the official language. Rejected by the Muslim League as biased and narrow-minded.
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929): Core demands including: * Federal constitution with provincial power. * Muslim representation in the Central Assembly and cabinets. * Separate electorates. * Separation of Sindh from Bombay. * Protection of Muslim culture/religion.
Salt March (1930): Gandhi's -mile march to Dandi to protest the British salt tax.
Allahabad Address (1930): Allama Iqbal outlined a vision for an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, NWFP, Sindh, Balochistan).
Round Table Conferences (1930-1932): Three sessions in London. Failed due to disagreements over separate electorates, particularly Gandhi's refusal to grant them to depressed classes (Untouchables).
Communal Award (1932): British-imposed formula granting separate electorates to Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and depressed classes.
'Now or Never' Pamphlet (1933): Published by Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, coining the name 'PAKSTAN' representing Panjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan.
Government of India Act (1935): Introduced provincial autonomy and a federal structure. Rejected by League (insufficient autonomy) and Congress (British 'divide and rule' tactic).
1937 Elections and Congress Rule: Congress won majority seats. Muslim League fared poorly. Two years of Congress rule (1937-1939) saw policies like the Wardha Scheme and the imposition of Hindi, leading to the Pirpur Report (1938) documenting Muslim grievances. Jinnah declared December 22, 1939, as the 'Day of Deliverance' when Congress ministries resigned.
Lahore Resolution (March 23, 1940): A.K. Fazlul Haq presented the draft calling for independent, autonomous states in Muslim-majority regions.
THE PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE (1942-1947)
Cripps Proposal (1942): Stafford Cripps offered dominion status after the war in exchange for support. Rejected by both parties.
Quit India Movement (1942): Congress-led civil disobedience demanding immediate British withdrawal. Most leaders arrested.
General Elections (1945-46): Muslim League won all seats reserved for Muslims in the Central Legislature and approx. of Muslim provincial seats, vindicating Jinnah’s stance.
Cabinet Mission (1946): Proposed a three-tier structure (Indian union, provincial groupings). League accepted initially, Congress rejected the grouping plan. Failure led Jinnah to call for Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946), during which riots in Calcutta killed people.
India Independence Act (1947): Received Royal Assent on July 18, 1947. Scheduled for August 1947.
The Radcliffe Commission: Sir Cyril Radcliffe demarcated borders. Partitioned Punjab and Bengal, leading to mass migration and communal violence that killed an estimated million people.
Independence: Pakistan (August 14) and India (August 15).
EARLY CHALLENGES OF PAKISTAN
Leadership Loss: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah died on September 11, 1948.
Refugee Crisis: Massive influx necessitated housing and resources for millions.
Princely States Disputes: * Hyderabad: Nizam (Muslim) wanted independence for a Hindu-majority state; occupied by Indian forces in September 1948. * Kashmir: Hindu Maharaja ruled a Muslim-majority state. Led to the first armed conflict (1948) and a UN-mediated ceasefire.
Canal Water Dispute: India shut off water to Pakistan’s headworks in 1948. Resolved by the Indus Water Treaty (1960) mediated by the UN.
Objectives Resolution (1949): Passed under Liaquat Ali Khan; established Islamic ideology as the foundation for future constitutions.
EVOLUTION OF PAKISTANI GOVERNANCE
Constitution of 1956: Proclaimed Pakistan an Islamic Republic with a parliamentary system. Iskander Mirza became first President.
Ayub Khan Era (1958-1969): Military coup leading to the 'Decade of Development'. Introduced the Constitution of 1962 (Presidential system, 'One-Unit' scheme combining West Pakistan provinces). Resigned after the 1965 War and Tashkent Agreement protests.
Separation of East Pakistan (1971): Political crisis after the 1970 elections (Awami League landslide in the East). Civil war involving Mukti Bahini (backed by India) led to the formation of Bangladesh.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Era (1971-1977): Introduced the Constitution of 1973 (Parliamentary democracy, Senate established, federal structure). Ousted in 1977 by General Zia-ul-Haq.
General Zia-ul-Haq Rule (1978-1988): Imposed 'Islamisation' (Hudood Ordinances). Ally of USA during the Soviet-Afghan War ().
Global Standing (1990s-2000s): * 1998 Nuclear Tests: Conducted by Nawaz Sharif in response to India. * War on Terror: Pakistan joined forces with the USA after 9/11 under General Pervez Musharraf.
WORLD WAR II: THE GLOBAL CONFLICT (1939-1945)
Causes: Resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, rise of the Nazi Party in Germany, and aggression by Italy and Japan.
The Axis Powers: Germany (Hitler), Italy (Mussolini), and Japan (Hirohito). Formed through agreements like the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936), Pact of Steel (1939), and Anti-Comintern Pact.
The Allied Powers: Britain (Churchill), France, and Australia; later joined by the Soviet Union (Stalin) and USA (Roosevelt) in 1941.
Key Military Concepts: * Blitzkrieg: "Lightning war" combining air power (Luftwaffe), tanks (Panzers), and infantry. * Operation Barbarossa: German invasion of Soviet Union (1941), violating the Non-Aggression Pact. * Scorched Earth Policy: Stalin ordered destruction of all resources (crops, bridges) during retreat to hinder Germans.
Major Battles: * Battle of Britain (1940): RAF used radar to defeat Luftwaffe. * Stalingrad (1942-1943): Turning point in Europe; massive German defeat. * Pearl Harbor (Dec 7, 1941): Japanese surprise attack on US Pacific Fleet. * D-Day (June 6, 1944): Allied invasion of Normandy, France.
The Atomic Age: US dropped 'Little Boy' (Uranium) on Hiroshima (Aug 6) and 'Fat Man' (Plutonium) on Nagasaki (Aug 9, 1945) to force Japanese surrender.
THE COLD WAR (1945-1991)
Definition: Intense rivalry between superpowers (USA and USSR) fought through propaganda, proxy wars, and the arms race.
Key Doctrines: * Containment: US policy to stop the spread of communism. * Iron Curtain: Churchill’s term for the division between democratic West and communist East Europe. * MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction): Guarantee that a nuclear attack would destroy both nations.
Proxy Conflicts: Korean War () and Vietnam War (Unified under communist rule in 1975).
Berlin Wall (1961-1989): Symbol of Cold War division.
End of Cold War: Mikhail Gorbachev introduced Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika. Soviet Union disbanded in 1991.
POST-COLD WAR CONFLICTS
Arab-Israeli Wars: Roots in the Balfour Declaration (1917) and 1947 UN Partition plan. Key events include the Six-Day War (1967), Oslo Accords (1993), and the humanitarian crisis in Gaza Strip.
Gulf Wars: * First (1990-91): Iraq invaded Kuwait; UN sanctions and US-led coalition liberated Kuwait. * Second (2003-11): US-led invasion of Iraq based on disproven claims of WMDs; Saddam Hussein executed.
Rwanda (1994): Hundreds of thousands (mostly Tutsi) killed in 100-day genocide.
War on Terror: Triggered by the September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon.
United Nations Peacekeeping: Guided by consent, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defense. Pakistan has been a top contributor, notably in Somalia ().