Lifespan Development

LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 10

ISSUE 1: Important Concepts in Developmental Change and How Development is Studied (Module 10.1)

• Developmental Psychology:

  • Definition: Development refers to changes that occur across the lifespan in various characteristics, including physical, cognitive, social, and behavioral changes.

MAJOR ISSUES

• Nature-Nurture Issue:

  • Investigates the role of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in human development, including their interaction.

• Critical and Sensitive Periods:

  • Critical Periods: Specific ages when experiences must occur for normal development.

  • Sensitive Periods: Optimal age ranges for certain developmental changes.

• Continuity vs. Discontinuity:

  • Continuity: Views development as gradual changes that occur over time (often associated with quantitative change).

  • Discontinuity: Suggests that development occurs in distinct stages (qualitative changes) exemplified by stage models.

DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS

RESEARCH METHOD 1: CROSS-SECTIONAL

• Description: Simultaneous data collection from various ages at a single point in time.

  • Example: A study in 2026 examining life demands and mental health could compare different age groups affected by COVID-19:

  • 16-year-olds (born in 2010)

  • 21-year-olds (born in 2005)

  • 26-year-olds (born in 2000)

  • Risk: Cohort effects, where differences in responses may be due to the unique experiences and beliefs influenced by the time of birth.

RESEARCH METHOD 2: LONGITUDINAL

• Description: Study of the same group of individuals across different points in time to assess development.

  • Example: Tracking the friendships and mental health of one group from ages 16 to 26:

  • At age 16 (in 2025)

  • At age 21 (in 2030)

  • At age 26 (in 2035)

  • Risk: Attrition, which is the loss of participants over the study period due to various reasons such as moving away, losing interest, or death.

ISSUE 2: Motor and Brain Changes in the First Year of Life (Module 10.1)

EARLY (1ST YEAR) MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• Milestones:

  • Prenatal Motor Functions: By 5 months in utero, voluntary motor functions develop.

  • Reflexes in Newborns: Involuntary motor responses reflecting innate behaviors necessary for eating and social interaction (e.g., maintaining contact with caregiver).

  • Function of Reflexes: Serves as indicators of normal development.

TABLE 10.2 – SOME INFANT REFLEXES (FIRST 12 TO 18 MONTHS)

• Key milestones follow a consistent yet variable pattern influenced by practice:

  • Holding up head, then chest and head

  • Rolling over

  • Sitting with support

  • Crawling (sometimes through ‘bum-sliding’)

  • Standing (with support), then independently

  • Walking

BRAIN CHANGES WITH EARLY DEVELOPMENT

• Myelination: Formation of myelin around axons beginning before birth and continuing after.

• Synaptogenesis: Rapid development of synaptic connections between neurons.

• Synaptic Pruning: Elimination of weaker synaptic connections, linked to phenomena like infantile amnesia.

ISSUE 3: Cognitive Development in Children (Module 10.2)

• Cognitive Development:

  • Defined as the study of changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes throughout life.

JEAN PIAGET'S STAGE THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Processes for Knowledge Development:

  • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing belief systems.

  • Accommodation: Adapting one’s belief structures based on new experiences, leading to a more complex understanding of the world.

FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0 - 2 Years):

   • Knowledge is gained through sensory experiences and interactions; characterized by "out of sight, out of mind" thinking initially.

   • By the end of this stage, "symbolic thought" develops, leading to the emergence of object permanence.

   • Object Permanence: Understanding that objects still exist even when not visible, typically developed around 8 months.

2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 Years):

   • Emergence of symbolic thought, enabling pretend play.

   • Children think in terms of words and images but struggle with conservation tasks until closer to the end of this stage.

   • Conservation: Knowledge that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement; children at this stage are often egocentric and lack the ability to decenter or reverse actions.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 Years):

   • Ability to perform conservation tasks and think logically about concrete events, but struggles with abstract concepts.

   • Less egocentric, capable of decentering and reversing operations.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12 Years to Adulthood):

   • Emergence of abstract reasoning; ability to conceptualize ideas not personally observable or physically manipulable.

   • Can think hypothetically, creating a more systematic approach to cognition.

   • Piaget acknowledged variability in pace through stages and inconsistencies in thinking characteristic of two stages concurrently.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL CONTEXT OF LEARNING

• Zone of Proximal Development: Difference between what a child can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement.

  • Scaffolding: A teaching technique wherein the teacher adapts their support based on the learner's needs to foster cognitive development.

ISSUE 4: Key Issues in Adolescent/Young Adult Development (Modules 10.3/10.4)

• Adolescence: Marked by a greater risk of poor decision-making due to ongoing development of the impulse, emotional control, planning, and reasoning capabilities, which are primarily associated with the maturation of the frontal lobes.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND IDENTITY

• Identity Definition: A clear sense of self, including who one is, the groups one belongs to, and the societal roles one is expected to play.

  • Identity development typically involves experiencing identity crises, which include exploration and questioning of various identities.

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN ADOLESCENCE

• Peer Relationships: Friendships often grow in intensity and vary in size during adolescence.

  • This phase sees a heightened period of social vulnerability.

  • Characteristic social groups (or crowds) defined by shared social and behavioral norms.

  • Negative Impact of Rejection: Social isolation can lead to negative emotional responses, including shame and insecurity.

EMERGING ADULTHOOD (Ages 18 - 24 Years)

• Characteristics: Transition period from adolescence to adulthood, typically involving:

  • Moving out of familial homes

  • Engaging in post-secondary education or first jobs

  • Achieving financial independence and exploring committed relationships.

• Personal Growth Areas:

  1. Increased Relationships: Greater intimacy and trust in personal connections.

  2. New Possibilities: Opportunities to pursue individual goals and interests.

  3. Discovering Personal Strengths: Recognition of one’s capabilities in overcoming challenges.

ISSUE 5: Changes in Cognitive Function During Adulthood (Module 10.4)

ADULTHOOD COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Declines with Age:

  • Decreased memory for newly learned factual information (episodic memory).

  • Impairments in spatial memory (e.g., recall of object locations).

  • Differences in recall versus recognition; recall typically requires more cognitive resources.

MURMAN (2015) ON COGNITIVE DECLINES

• Notable declines in:

  • Retrieval of newly learned information (weaker delayed recall).

  • Source Monitoring: Understanding where known information originates from.

  • Specific details in episodic memories.

• NO DECLINE in the Following:

  • Recognition memory, familiar information, semantic memory, and positive information, which generally benefit from cognitive stimulation.

LONG-TERM COGNITIVE TRENDS

• Crystallized Abilities: Show improvement until around 60 years, plateauing until ~80 years of age.

• Fluid Abilities: Experience a linear decline beginning in early adulthood and continuing through to age 80.