Bio 112 chapter 1-2

Anatomy

  • Anatomy: Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts.

  • Observation methods are utilized to determine sizes, relationships, and parts of larger structures.

  • Types of Anatomy:

    • Gross Anatomy: Deals with large structures easily observable.

    • Microscopic Anatomy: Studies small cells and tissues.

    • Anatomy focuses on various body organ systems, such as the digestive system.

Physiology

  • Physiology: The study of how the body and its parts function.

  • The structure of body parts determines their function.

  • Biological Organization (smallest to largest):

    1. Atoms (molecules)

    2. Cells (composed of molecules)

    3. Tissues (grouped cells)

    4. Organs (networks of tissues)

    5. Organ systems

    6. Organisms

  • Integumentary System: Includes skin, hair, and nails; protects the body and regulates temperature, produces Vitamin D, and eliminates salts.

Organ Systems

Skeletal System

  • Provides framework for muscles and bones.

  • Site of blood cell formation (red blood cells).

  • Stores calcium essential for bone health.

Anatomical Position

  • Standard Body Position: Palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away from the body.

  • Directional Terms:

    • Superior: Above/toward the head.

    • Inferior: Below/toward the feet.

    • Anterior: Front of the body.

    • Posterior: Back of the body.

    • Medial: Middle of the body.

    • Lateral: Away from the body.

    • Intermediate: Between two structures.

    • Contralateral: Opposite sides of the body.

    • Proximal: Closer to point of attachment of a limb.

    • Distal: Farther from point of attachment of a limb.

Body Plans

  • Sagittal Plane: Divides body into right and left sides.

  • Midsagittal (Median): Equal division into right and left.

  • Frontal (Coronal): Divides body into anterior and posterior parts.

  • Transverse (Horizontal): Divides body into superior and inferior parts.

  • Oblique: Diagonal plane, not parallel to other planes.

Regional Terms

Upper Limb

  • Face: Acromial, Frontal

  • Arm: Brachial

  • Eyes: Orbital

  • Forearm: Antebrachial

  • Wrist: Carpal

  • Fingers/Toes: Digits

Lower Limbs

  • Neck: Cervical

  • Chest: Thoracic

  • Thigh: Femoral

  • Kneecap: Patellar

  • Foot: Pedal

  • Abdomen: Umbilical

  • Pelvic Area: Inguinal

Back

  • Dorsal: Back region

  • Spinal Column: Vertebral column

  • Lower Back: Lumbar

  • Sacral: Central back of hips

  • Gluteal: Buttocks

Body Systems

Muscular System

  • Facilitates locomotion (movement).

  • Maintains posture and produces heat, contributing to body temperature regulation.

Nervous System

  • Fast-acting control system that processes internal and external stimuli.

Endocrine System

  • Secretes hormones into the blood to regulate physiological processes.

Cardiovascular System

  • Composed of blood vessels that transport blood, oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.

  • Also aids in the removal of carbon dioxide.

Lymphatic System

  • Comprises lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs; primarily involved in immunity.

Respiratory System

  • Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide through gas exchange.

Digestive System

  • Responsible for absorbing nutrients into the blood after breaking down food.

Reproductive System

  • Males: Testes and scrotum (produce sperm).

  • Females: Ovaries.

Other Key Concepts

  • Responsiveness (Irritability): Ability to sense changes and react.

  • Metabolism: All chemical reactions occurring within the body.

  • Excretion: Elimination of waste (e.g., urine, feces, sweat).

  • Survival Needs: Water is the most abundant chemical in the body.

    • Water helps regulate body temperature, facilitating chemical reactions.

Body Cavities

  • Dorsal Cavity: Composed of cranial and spinal cavities.

  • Ventral Cavity: Includes thoracic, diaphragm, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.

  • Appendix/Gallbladder/Stomach: Notable organs within cavities.

  • Regions: Includes 4 quadrants and 9 regions for anatomical reference (e.g., hypochondriac, epigastric).

Homeostasis

  • Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions.

  • Homeostatic Imbalance: Inability to maintain normal environment, leading to disease.

  • Homeostasis Mechanisms:

    • Receptors: Monitor changes and provide information.

    • Set Point: The body's target condition.

    • Effectors: Muscle cells or glands that induce changes in response.

Feedback Mechanisms

  • Negative Feedback: Reduces the intensity of stimuli; promotes stability.

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes and can lead to instability (e.g., childbirth).

Basic Chemistry

  • Matter: Anything that occupies space and has weight.

  • Energy: Ability to perform work (e.g. kinetic and potential energy).

  • ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Key energy molecule used by the body to breakdown food.

  • Atoms: Building blocks composed of protons (+), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (-).

  • Ions: Atoms that have lost or gained electrons; they have charges (cations and anions).

  • Atomic Mass: Sum of protons and neutrons; Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.

  • Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

  • Molecules and Compounds: Molecule (two or more atoms of the same element), compound (two or more different elements).

Chemical Bonds

  • Ionic Bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another.

  • Covalent Bonds: Formed when atoms share electrons. Types:

    • Non-Polar: Electrons shared equally.

    • Polar: Electrons shared unequally.

    • Water is a polar molecule.

Chemical Reactions

  • Synthesis Reaction: Building up (A + B -> AB).

  • Decomposition Reaction: Breaking down (AB -> A + B).

  • Examples include amino acids forming proteins and glycogen breaking down into glucose.