Spanish Enlightenment and Neoclassical Literature Study Guide

Social and Cultural Context of the 18th Century in Spain

The $18^{\text{th}}$ century in Spain began with a significant political shift: the arrival of the Bourbon dynasty, which was of French origin. This change introduced a new mentality aligned with French thought, sparking an artistic renovation. However, this transition was not immediate due to the deep roots of Baroque art in Spanish culture. Throughout the first half of the century, there was a coexistence—often characterized by tension—between the imported French forms and the inherited Baroque styles of the previous century.

The aesthetic of the period was governed by the fundamental concept of Reason. European thinkers of this era elevated Reason to the status of a goddess, viewing her "light" as the force that would banish the ignorance and superstitions associated with the Baroque period. Consequently, the $18^{\text{th}}$ century in Europe is widely known as the "Age of Enlightenment" (Siglo de las Luces). In Spain, however, this period did not span a full century, nor was its impact as widespread. Many conservative Spanish intellectuals believed that the only true light was the light of faith in God. Despite this, the term Ilustración (Enlightenment) refers to the cultural and intellectual movement that sought the modernization of the country.

Enlightened thought catalyzed numerous advancements in science and technology. Key developments included studies in electricity, such as the invention of the lightning rod and the electric battery, the creation of the steam engine, the first vaccines, and investigations into the origin of planets and stellar movement. The most representative work of this movement was the Encyclopedia, edited by Diderot and D'Alembert, which aimed to compile all human knowledge into $35$ volumes.

In Spain, the dawn of this new era was reflected in the creation of influential institutions, most notably the Real Academia Española (RAE), founded in $1713$ . The RAE published works that disseminated the enlightened spirit, such as the Diccionario de Autoridades, the Ortografía, and the Gramática. It is widely considered that the $18^{\text{th}}$ century marked the birth of contemporary Spanish—a language that became suitable not only for literature but for the transmission of any field of knowledge. Scientific endeavors were also funded by the state, such as the Malaspina expedition, a global scientific project financed by the Spanish Crown.

Regarding society, a strong stratification remained, dividing the population into three estates: nobles, ecclesiastics, and the common people. However, the nobility of blood, which had been powerful in the previous century, began to lose its prominence to a new aristocracy emerging from wealth. Politically, the King maintained absolute power but sought to improve the lives of his subjects through a system known as Enlightened Despotism (despotismo ilustrado), summarized by the motto: "Everything for the people, but without the people."

The Pillar of Good Taste and Neoclassicism

Alongside Reason, "Good Taste" (el buen gusto) served as the second pillar of art during this era. This term was applied to compositions that imitated the classics with clarity, harmony, and simplicity. Examples of this ideal included the Renaissance works of Garcilaso de la Vega and fray Luis de León. In contrast, Góngora was perceived as the representative of "Baroque darkness," a style the Enlightenment sought to abolish.

The alliance of Reason and Good Taste led to the creation of preceptivas—guides offering rules and norms for literature. A prominent example was the Poética by Luzán, which combined the teaching and didacticism of the enlightened spirit with the pleasure derived from artistic works. The leading motto for these literary compositions was docere delectando ("to teach while entertaining"), a principle particularly evident in fables.

Two major external influences shaped the aesthetics of this period. The first was French influence, which arrived with the new dynasty and manifested in an appreciation for detail and ornamentation in both visual arts and literature. The second was Italian influence, largely fueled by the discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum. This discovery brought the classical world of Greece and Rome back into fashion among the artists and thinkers of the time.

Neoclassicism is the name given to the art and literature of the Enlightenment. Its general characteristics included an intense desire for renewal (rejecting Baroque darkness), a utilitarian and moralizing aim (didacticism), the imposition of strict rules for artistic creation, the principles of Good Taste, and an expressive style that was sometimes seen as prosaic or lacking in emotion. Notable architectural examples include the façade of the Museo del Prado by Juan de Villanueva.

Neoclassical Literature and the Rise of the Essay

Enlightened literature did not fully establish itself in Spain until well into the century. The Baroque style remained deeply rooted and popular, especially in poetry and theater. This exhausted and repetitive post-Baroque literature was heavily criticized by Enlightenment thinkers, such as in the work Fray Gerundio de Campazas by Padre Isla.

The greatest achievement of the $18^{\text{th}}$ -century literary language was the creation of clear and precise prose used to transmit enlightened ideals. Consequently, the most characteristic genre of the era was the Essay. These were relatively short, expository-argumentative works dealing with diverse themes—social, pedagogical, philosophical, political—with a didactic purpose. Variants of the essay included dialogues (presenting multiple viewpoints), memoirs, reports, diaries, and letters.

Famous essayists of the period included Benito Jerónimo Feijoo ( $1676$ - $1764$ ), a Benedictine monk and professor at the University of Oviedo who authored the Teatro crítico universal and Cartas eruditas y curiosas. Another major figure was Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos ( $1744$ - $1811$ ), a public official whose works included Informe sobre la ley agraria, Bases para la formación de un plan general de instrucción pública, and Memoria para el arreglo de la policía de los espectáculos. Pablo de Olavide ( $1725$ - $1803$ ) also played a crucial role in Andalusian culture by stimulating literary life and fostering poetry academies.

In terms of narrative, many novels produced in the $18^{\text{th}}$ century were mere imitations of the previous century's picaresque novels. However, José Cadalso ( $1741$ - $1782$ ) stands out as a significant author who composed poetry, plays, and the notable novel Cartas marruecas ( $1770$ ).

Lyric Poetry, Fables, and the Press

While lyric poetry was held in high regard by Neoclassical authors, it was not considered the most effective medium for spreading enlightened ideas. Within this genre, anacreónticas were popular—short poems celebrating the pleasures of life, friendship, and love with a sense of frivolity. Juan Meléndez Valdés was a key figure in this subgenre. The Andalusian Neoclassical poetry school, specifically the Sevillian school, included poets like José Marchena ( $1768$ - $1821$ ), Manuel María de Arjona ( $1771$ - $1820$ ), and Alberto Lista ( $1775$ - $1848$ ), whose works focused on civic themes and didacticism.

A unique subgenre that blended lyric and narrative was the Fable. These were verse narrations, usually featuring animal protagonists that represented human beings. This distancing allowed readers to clearly see virtues and defects that might otherwise go unnoticed. The language of fables was simple and direct, often using rhyme to facilitate memorization. Fables typically consisted of two parts: a narrative portion telling the story and a reflective portion containing the moral (moraleja). The most famous fabulists were Tomás de Iriarte and Félix María de Samaniego.

The press also became a vital medium for transmitting enlightened ideas. This saw the development of the journalistic article (another variant of the essay) and the cuadro de costumbres. The cuadro de costumbres was a brief narrative providing a kind-hearted portrayal of daily life, which served as the seed for the resurgence of the novel in the $19^{\text{th}}$ century.

Neoclassical Theater

The 18th century saw a fierce dispute between supporters of Baroque theater and Neoclassicists. Neoclassicists advocated for the division of genres and strict adherence to the rules established by Luzán, particularly the Rule of the Three Units. Under this rule, a play must have Unity of Action (one main plot), Unity of Place (occurring in spaces reachable on horseback within $24$ hours), and Unity of Time (covering a maximum of $24$ hours). While Baroque theater sought to entertain through spectacles and feelings like love and honor, Neoclassical theater aimed to educate the public and spread Enlightenment ideals through reason and "Good Taste."

In the final third of the century, the "comedy of good manners" or Neoclassical comedy triumphed, primarily due to Leandro Fernández de Moratín ( $1760$ - $1828$ ). Moratín was an excellent reformer of the Spanish stage. His masterpiece, El sí de las niñas ( $1806$ ), critiqued the education given to young girls, which demanded obedience and submission without regard for their own opinions. The play follows doña Francisca, a $16$ -year-old forced by her mother to marry don Diego, a wealthy older man, despite being in love with don Diego's nephew, don Carlos. Ultimately, don Diego allows the young couple to marry, providing a didactic lesson against arranged marriages.

Women Writers of the 18th Century

Literacy rates at the start of the $18^{\text{th}}$ century were extremely low: only $4\%$ of women and $30\%$ of men could read and write. By the end of the century, these figures rose to $13.46\%$ for women and $31\%$ for men. Most women with access to culture belonged to the privileged classes, meeting in social salons, or were religious women studying in convents. Few published their work, and those who did often apologized for their "boldness."

Three essential authors of the period include:

María Rosa Gálvez ( $1768$ - $1806$ ): A playwright who was notably able to live off her work. Her drama Familia a la moda reflected personal experiences, and her work Zinda denounced slavery at a time when it was still legal in Spain. She was a staunch opponent of arranged marriages.
Josefa de Jovellanos ( $1745$ - $1807$ ): Sister of the minister Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos. Despite her brother's reformist views, he largely restricted her freedom, leading her to join a convent at age $38$ . She wrote poems in the Bable language (Asturian) and used her writing to denounce social inequality and the squandering of money on festivals while the poor suffered.
Josefa Amar y Borbón ( $1749$ - $1833$ ): An Aragonese noblewoman who received an elite education, becoming proficient in Latin, Greek, Italian, English, French, Catalan, Portuguese, and some German. She was a modern thinker who defended women's rights to education and government roles in her work Discurso en defensa del talento de las mujeres y su aptitud para el gobierno y otros cargos en los que se emplean los hombres. She argued that intellectual differences between sexes were purely the result of different educations.

Activities and Discussion

Observation and Analysis of the Encyclopedia Illustration:

a. The illustration by Benoît-Louis Prévost features Truth in the center, surrounded by light. To the right, Reason and Philosophy pull back the veil covering her. This symbolizes the Enlightenment ideal that through Reason and Philosophy, humanity can uncover objective Truth and dispel ignorance.

b. Research Task: Identify three authors who collaborated on the Encyclopedia and their respective disciplines. (Key figures include Diderot, D'Alembert, Voltaire, Rousseau, or Montesquieu).

c. Censorship: The Encyclopedia was included in the Index of Prohibited Books. This was likely due to its secular nature, its promotion of reason over religious dogma, and its potential to undermine traditional authority structures.

d. Organization: Given the title Reasoned Dictionary of Sciences, Arts, and Trades, the work is likely ordered alphabetically, similar to a modern dictionary or encyclopedia.

e. Matching Scientists to Contributions:

J. Watt: Steam engine improvements.
S. Germain: Mathematical elasticity and number theory.
E. Halley: Cometary orbits (Halley's Comet).
P. S. Laplace: Celestial mechanics and probability.
B. Franklin: Electricity (lightning rod).
A. Volta: Electric battery (Voltaic pile).
C. Herschel: Discovery of several comets and astronomical cataloging.