THE BEST AP PSYCHOLOGY CRAM SHEET
History and Approaches (2-4%)
Psychology is derived from physiology (biology) and philosophy
EARLY APPROACHES
Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION (act of looking inward to examine mental experience) to determine the underlying STRUCTURES of the mind
Functionalism – need to analyze the PURPOSE of behavior
APPROACHES KEY WORDS
Evolutionary – Genes
Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, actualization
Biological – Brain, NTs
Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts
Behavioral – learned, reinforced
Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, childhood
Sociocultural – society
Biopsychosocial – combo of above
PEOPLE:
Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA
Charles Darwin: Natural selection & evolution
Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental institutions in U.S.
Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA 1st journal
William James: Father of American Psychology – functionalist
Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern Psychology – structuralist
Margaret Floy Washburn – 1st fem. PhD
Christine Ladd Franklin – 1st fem.
Research Methods (8-10%)
EXPERIMENT:
Adv: researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect
Disadv: difficult to generalize
Independent Variable: manipulated by the researcher
Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV)
Control Group: placebo, baseline (part of the IV)
Placebo Effect: show behaviors associated with the exp. group when having received placebo
Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to
Dependent Variable: measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable)
Operational Definition: clear, precise, typically quantifiable definition of your variables – allows replication
Confound: error/ flaw in study
Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random – minimizes bias, increase chance of equal representation
Random Sample: method for choosing participants – minimizes bias
Validity: accurate results
Reliability: same results every time
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
Adv: real world validity (observe people in their own setting)
Disadv: No cause and effect
CORRELATION:
Adv: identify relationship between two variables
Disadv: No cause and effect (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION)
Positive Correlation – Variables vary in the same direction
Negative Correlation – variables vary in opposite directions
The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign
CASE STUDY:
Adv. Studies ONE person (usually) in great detail – lots of info
Disadv: No cause and effect
DESCRIPTIVE STATS: shape of the data
Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean: Average (use in normal distribution)
Median: Middle # (use in skewed distribution)
Mode: occurs most often
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: establishes significance (meaningfulness)
Significant results = NOT due to chance
ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA)
Confidentiality
Informed Consent
Debriefing
Deception must be warranted
Biological Basis (8-10%)
Sensory neurons – receive signals
A ferent neurons – Accept signals
Motor neurons – send signals
Efferent neurons – signal Exits
NEURON: Basic cell of the NS
Dendrites: Receive incoming signal
Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus)
Axon: AP travels down this
Myelin Sheath: speeds up signal down axon
Terminals: release NTs – send signal onto next neuron
Synapse: gap b/w neurons
Action Potential: movement of sodium and potassium ions across a membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon
All or none law: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response (flush the toilet)
Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets)
CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord
PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS
Somatic NS: Voluntary movement
Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, lungs, etc)
Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for fight/flight (generally activates)
Parasympathetic NS: established homeostasis after a sympathetic response (generally inhibits)
NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NTS): Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons
GABA: Major inhibitory NT
Glutamate: Major Excitatory NT
Dopamine: Reward & movement
Serotonin: Moods and emotion
Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS arousal
Endorphins: pain control, happiness
Oxytocin: love and bonding
Agonist: drug that mimics a NT
Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT
Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block reuptake – treatment for depression
AREAS OF THE BRAIN:
Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain
Cerebellum – movement (what does it take to ring a bell)
Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP)
Pons – sleep/arousal (Ponzzzzzz)
Midbrain
Reticular formation: attention (if you can’t pay attention, You R F’d)
Forebrain: higher thought processes
Limbic System
Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! You’re so emotional!)
Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a hippo on campus you’d remember it!)
Thalamus: relay center
Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors
Broca’s Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca – Broken speech)
Wernicke’s Area: Inability to comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?)
Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the brain – higher order thought processes
Occipital Lobe: located in the back of the head - vision
Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality
Parietal Lobe: located on the top of the head - sensations
Temporal Lobe: located on the sides of the head (temples) – hearing and face recognition
Somatosensory Cortex: map of our sensory receptors –in parietal lobe
Motor Cortex: map of our motor receptors – located in frontal lobe
Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures – leads to “split-brain patients”
Lateralization: the brain has some specialized features – language is processed in the L Hemisphere
Split-brain experiments: done by Sperry & Gazzanaga.
Images shown to the right hemisphere will be processed in the left (& vice versa), patient can verbally identify what they saw
BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal” itself
NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER IS BOTH
Twin Studies:
Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ)
Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ)
Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease
Environment: MZ twins raised in different environments show differences
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends hormones throughout the body
Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus. release growth hormones
Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic NS: releases adrenaline
Sensation & Perception (6 – 8%)
ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of signal 50% of time (is it there)
DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also called a just noticeable difference (JND) and follows WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion. (Can you tell a change?)
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (can you feel your underwear?)
Perceptual Set: tendency to see something as part of a group – speeds up signal processing
Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice something b/c you’re so focused on another task (gorilla video)
Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren’t previously paying attention
VISUAL SYSTEM:
Pathway of vision: light → cornea →pupil/iris → lens → retina → rods/cones → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → optic chiasm → occipital lobe
Cornea – protects the eye
Pupil/iris – controls amount of light entering eye
Lens – focuses light on retina
Fovea – area of best vision (cones here)
Rods – black/white, dim light
Cones – color, bright light
Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and ganglion cells
Ganglion cells – opponent-processing occurs here
Blind spot – occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye
Feature detectors – specialized cells that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. (experiments by Hubel & Weisel)
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:
Trichromatic – three cones for receiving color (blue, red, green)
Explains color blindness - they are missing a cone type
Opponent Process – complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an after image
Visual Capture: Visual system overwhelms all others (nauseous in an IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular)
Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink on/off in succession – looks like movement (traffic signs with arrows)
Stroboscopic movement: motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animations)
MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a 3D image from a 2D image)
Interposition: overlapping images appear closer
Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away
Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away
Texture Gradient: coarser objects are closer
Relative Height: things higher in our field of vision look further away
Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks)
BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes make up a 3D image)
Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retinal, location of image helps us determine depth
Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer
TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole → smaller parts
BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller Parts → Whole
AUDITORY SYSTEM:
Pathway of sound: sound → pinna → auditory canal → ear drum (tympanic membrane) → hammer, anvil, stirrup (HAS) → oval window → cochlea → auditory nerve → temporal lobes
Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal
Middle Ear: ear drum, HAS (bones vibrate to send signal)
Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA (sounds 1st processed here)
THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur in the cochlea
Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches)
Frequency theory – rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches)
OTHER SENSES:
Touch: Mechanoreceptors → spinal cord → thalamus → somatosensory cortex
Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain ix experienced
Kinesthetic: Sense of body position
Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear effect this)
Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory)
Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Gestalt Principles:
Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground)
Closure: tendency to mentally fill in gaps
Proximity: tendency to group things together that appear near each other
Similarity: tendency to group things together based off of looks
Continuity: tendency to mentally form a continuous line
States of Consciousness (2 – 4%)
STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS:
Higher-Level: controlled processes – totally aware
Lower-Level: automatic processing (daydreaming, phone numbers)
Altered States: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis
Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming
No awareness: Knocked out
METACOGNITION: Thinking about thinking
SLEEP:
Beta Waves: awake
Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy
Stage 1: light sleep
Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles
Stage 3 (delta waves: Deep sleep
Stage 4: extremely deep sleep
Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming
Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night
CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour biological clock
Body temp and awareness change due to this
Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain
Explains jet lag
SLEEP DISORDERS
Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due to stress/anxiety)
Sleep walking: (due to fatigue, drugs, alcohol)
Night terrors: extreme nightmares – NOT in REM sleep – typical in children
Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere (due to deficiency in orexin)
Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly while asleep (due to obesity usually)
DREAM THEORIES:
Freud’s Unconscious Wish Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs
Latent Content: hidden meaning of dreams
Manifest Content: obvious storyline of dream
Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories. Dreams start random then develop meaning
HYPNOSIS
It Can: Reduce pain, help you relax
It CANNOT: give you superhuman strength, make you regress, make you do things against your will
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:
Triggers dopamine release in the brain
Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics)
Decrease sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive
Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine
Increase sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive
Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana
Causes hallucinations, not very addictive
Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
Dependence: Become addicted to the drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal: Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – can kill you.
Learning (7-9 %)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV!
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings about response w/o needing to be learned (food)
Unconditioned Response (UR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate)
Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once neutral stimulus that now brings about a response (bell)
Conditioned Response (CR): response that, after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate)
Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented immediately BEFORE the US
Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing
Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time
Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere
Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell)
Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS
CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive processes
CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning)
COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little Albert and John Watson (father of behaviorism) – conditioned a fear in a baby (only to countercondition – remove it- later on)
OPERANT CONDITIONING: SKINNER!
LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box)
PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND:
Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for turning in HW)
Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior (put on seatbelt to take away annoying car signal)
Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking)
Neg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys)
Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water)
Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives)
Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money)
Generalization: respond to similar stimulus for reward
Discrimination: stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced (light on means response are accepted)
Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning
Premack Principle: high probability activities reinforce low probability activities (get extra min at recess if you everyone turns in their HW)
Overjustification Effect: reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to stop doing them (give a child 5$ for reading when they already like to read – they stop reading)
Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior (reward desired behaviors to teach a response – rat basketball)
Chaining: tie together several behaviors
Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response
Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed get )
Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a paycheck)
Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine)
Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (fishing)
Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction (how long will keep playing a slot machine before you think its broken?)
SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) LEARNING: BANDURA!
Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls to demonstrate the following
Prosocial – helping behaviors
Antisocial – mean behaviors
MISC LEARNING TYPES
Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved)
Cognitive maps – mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked
Insight learning (Kohler!) – some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas)
Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles)
Cognition (8 – 10%)
ENCODING: Getting info into memory
Automatic encoding – requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?)
Effortful encoding – requires attention (school work)
Shallow, intermediate, deep processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered
Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember (shoe w/ spaghetti laces)
Self-referent encoding – we better remember what we’re interested in (you’d remember someone’s phone number who you found extremely attractive)
Dual encoding – combining different types of encoding aids in memory
Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #)
Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier * Acronyms – using letter to remember something (PEMDAS) * Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order
Context dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing)
State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high)
STORAGE: Retaining info over time
Information Processing Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model
Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention)
Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock
Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM
Long term memory – lasts a life time
Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recollection
Episodic: events
Semantic: facts
Implicit (Nondeclarative): unconscious recollection
Classical conditioning
Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on (octopus, assassin, climate, bogeyman)
Procedural: skills
Memory organization
Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a hierarchy
Semantic networks: linked memories are stored together
Schemas: preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant)
Memory storage
Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for most memories
Cerebellum for procedural memories
Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)
RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage
Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning and the end of the list best
Recall: remember what you’ve been told w/o cues (essays)
Recognition: remember what you’ve been told w/ cues (MC)
Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid memories for highly important events (9/11 attacks)
Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories – are unreliable
Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny)
Encoding specificity principle: the more closely retrieval cues match the way we learned the info, the better we remember the info (like state dependent memory)
Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS)
Proactive interference: old info blocks new
Retroactive interference: new info blocks old
Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land)
Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)
Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info)
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus
LANGUAGE
Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch sound in chat)
Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning (syllable)
Grammar: rules in a language that enable us to communicate
Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding –ed makes something past tense)
Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (white house vs casa blanca)
Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of speech
One-word stage: duh
Two-word stage: duh duh
Theories of language development:
Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – but they don’t do it perfectly
Overregularization: grammar mistake where children over use certain morphemes (I go-ed to the park)
Operant conditioning: reinforced for language use
Inborn universal grammar: theory comes from NOAM CHOMSKY – says that language is innate and we are predisposed to learn it
Critical period: period of time where something must be learned or else it cannot ever happen (language must be learned young – Genie the Wild Child)
Linguistic determinism: language influences the way we think (Hopi people do not have words for the past, thus cannot easily think about the past) developed by WHORF
THINKING
Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics
Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of)
Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula)
Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of thumb)
Representative Heuristic: make inferences based on your experience (like a stereotype) – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
Availability heuristic: relying on availability to judge the frequency of something (over estimating death due to plane crashes due to recent events)
Functional Fixedness: keep using one strategy – cannot think outside of the box
Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions
Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence
Inductive reasoning: data driven decisions, general → specific
Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, specific → general
Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once
Motivation & Emotion (6-8%)
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed patterns and are not learned (explains animal motivation)
DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need creates aroused tension (drive) that motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by homeostasis: equilibrium)
Primary drive: unlearned drive based on survival (hunger, thirst)
Secondary drive: learned drive (wealth or success)
OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans aim to seek optimum levels of arousal – easier tasks requires more arousal, harder tasks need less
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid have priority over needs higher in the pyramid
Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa happiness
Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – you do it b/c you like it
Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain a reward (trophy)
HUNGER
Signals of hunger:
Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry
Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by the pancreas (endocrine system).
Insulin decreases glucose. Too little glucose makes us hungry.
Orexin is released by the hypothalamus – telling us to eat.
Other chemicals include ghrelin, obestatin, and PPY
Lateral hypothalamus: when stimulated makes you hungry, when lesioned you will never eat again. (I’m LATE for lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral hypothalamus makes you hungry.)
Ventromedial hypothalamus: when stimulated you feel full, when destroyed you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake)
Leptin: leptin signals the brain to reduce appetite
Obesity:
Increased risk of heart attack, hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes
Can be genetic – adopted children resemble their biological parents
Set point: there is a control system that dictates how much fat you should carry – every person is different
Eating Disorders:
Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% ideal weight, distorted body image
Causes: overly critical parents, perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals
Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat massive amounts, then throw up)
Causes: same as anorexia
SEXUALITY
Biology of sex:
Hypothalamus: stimulation increases sexual behavior, destruction leads to sexual inhibition
Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and restricts hormones
Males – testosterone
Females - estrogen
Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again until you reset, guys only)
Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct studies in sex, suggested that people were very promiscuous. Studies lacked a representative sample, created scale of homosexuality
Homosexuality: biological roots: differences in the brain, identical twins more likely to both be gay, later sons more likely to be (hormones from mom)
THORIES OF EMOTIONS
JAMES-LANGE: stimulus →physiological arousal → emotion
CANNON-BARD: stimulus → physiological arousal & emotion simultaneously
SCHACTER TWO FACTOR: adds in cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) stimulus → arousal →interpret external cues → label emotion
Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut reaction to a cockroach)
Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear) seen across ALL cultures
Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile (you can tell a real smile from a fake one)
Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced to smile will make you happier (facial expressions influence emotion)
STRESS AND HEALTH
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS): three phases of a stress response (SELYE came up w/ this)
Alarm: body/you freak out in response to stress
Resistance: body/you are dealing with stress
Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any more, give up
Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, perfectionist. At risk for heart disease
Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed.
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH
Industrial / Organizational Psych: psychological of the workplace – focuses on employee recruitment, placement, training, satisfaction, productivity
Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection of engineering and psych – focuses on safety and efficiency of human-machine interactions
Hawthorne effect: productivity increases when workers are made to feel important
Theory X management: manager controls employees, enforces rules. Good for lower level jobs
Theory Y management: manger gives employees responsibility, looks for input. Good for high level jobs
Employee Commitment:
Affective: emotional attachment (best type)
Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving
Normative: stay due to obligation (they paid for your school)
Meaning of Work:
Job – no training, just do it for . No happiness
Career – work for advancement. Some happiness
Development (7-9%)
Prenatal Development:
Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital organs being formed
Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall development
Teratogens: external agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc)
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes deformities, mental retardation, death
Physical Development:
Maturation: natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking)
Reflexes: innate responses we’re born with
Rooting, sucking, swallowing, grasping, stepping
Habituation: after continual exposure you pay less attention – used to test babies
Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year
Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff”
Other senses are fairly developed
Brain development continues for a few years
JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV.
Schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize info
Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff)
Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information (ACcommodation - All Change)
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: focused on exploring the world around them
Lack Object Permanence: Objects when removed from field of view are thought to disappear (peek-a-boo)
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