12-Spread of the Terror
1. The Terror and Executions
The Reign of Terror, spanning from 1792 to 1794, was marked by widespread executions and violence as revolutionary forces sought to consolidate power and suppress counter-revolutionary activity.
Victims of the Terror: Between 1792 and 1794, approximately 40,000 people were executed, with 17,000 executed by the guillotine.
September 1793–December 1793 (Popular Terror):
On September 17, 1793, the Law of Suspects was passed, significantly broadening the scope of who could be arrested and tried.
Revolutionary tribunals, initially set up in March 1793, ramped up in response to growing pressure. By September 1793, over 500,000 individuals had been investigated by these tribunals.
Key Executions:
Marie Antoinette was tried and executed on October 16, 1793, accused of incest, treason, and other crimes.
On October 24, 1793, 21 Girondin leaders were tried and executed by guillotine in just 36 minutes.
November 6, 1793 – Duc D’Orleans (Philippe Egalité) was executed, followed by Madame Roland on November 8, 1793, who famously said, "Oh Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name."
The Deaths of Ordinary Citizens:
Revolutionary tribunals expanded and increased in severity. This saw thousands of citizens tried and executed across France.
Notable Mass Executions:
Vendee: Jean-Baptiste Carrier, as a representative-en-mission, led a brutal campaign, including the noyades (mass drownings in the River Loire), where 7,873 were guillotined, and many more drowned.
Toulon: Following its recapture on December 19, 1793, by Napoleon, 700–800 prisoners were massacred.
Lyons: Between October and December 1793, after a federalist revolt, 2,000 were executed in Lyon. Barère suggested the city's destruction, and it was decimated, with brutal mass executions and use of cannons loaded with grape shot.
2. The Influence of the Sans-Culottes
The sans-culottes, a radical working-class faction, were influential in driving the revolution and supporting the extreme measures of the Terror, especially in the early months.
Popular Pressure: Between September and December 1793, the Convention and Committee of Public Safety (CPS) yielded to the demands of the sans-culottes, who played a key role in pushing for the Law of Maximum (capping prices on essential goods) and the Law of Suspects (allowing the arrest of suspects without sufficient evidence).
Rise of the Revolution: The sans-culottes’ support was pivotal in the success of revolutionary policies, including the formation of the Revolutionary Tribunals and the spread of the Terror.
3. The Influence of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety (CPS)
Maximilien Robespierre and the CPS were central to the direction and escalation of the Terror.
Strengthening the CPS: By the end of 1793, the Federalist revolts had been quelled, and the economy and war efforts were improving. Despite this, Robespierre and his allies argued that France required a more centralised and controlled system of government.
Law of 14 Frimaire (4 December 1793): This law greatly expanded the powers of the CPS, giving it control over ministers, generals, local governments, and representatives-en-mission (agents sent to the provinces).
Decentralisation and Sans-Culottes Influence: The law removed power from the sans-culottes and popular societies, reducing their influence in Paris and across France.
The Armees revolutionnaires (revolutionary armies) were disbanded in March 1794, but Paris' influence remained until September.
Laws like the Laws of Ventose (January and March 1794) promised the seizure of land from counter-revolutionaries to be given to the sans-culottes, but these promises were largely unfulfilled.
The Law of 22 Prairial (June 10, 1794), which radically reduced trial procedures and denied suspects the right to a defence, was passed to allow for faster executions during the Great Terror.
4. Robespierre's Fall and the Collapse of the Terror
By mid-1794, Robespierre's increasing authoritarianism and his allies’ suppression of rival factions led to the weakening of his position and eventually his downfall.
Power Struggles: As the Terror escalated, Robespierre’s strict adherence to the values of virtue and self-sacrifice alienated many. His radical stances were opposed by both moderates (e.g., Indulgents, including Danton and Desmoulins) and more extreme revolutionaries (e.g., Hebertists, including Jacques Hébert).
In March 1794, Robespierre denounced both the Hebertists and the Indulgents. The Hebertists were executed on March 24, 1794, and the Indulgents—including Danton and Desmoulins—on April 5, 1794.
These purges left Robespierre isolated and surrounded by enemies within the Convention and the CPS. While his allies, such as Saint-Just and Couthon, formed a triumvirate in the CPS, tensions were rising within the revolutionary leadership.
The Great Terror (June-July 1794):
Following the Law of 22 Prairial, accusations were enough to guarantee execution. Over 1,000 people were guillotined during this period, including many from the political centre and former allies of Robespierre.
The Fall of Robespierre (9 Thermidor, July 27, 1794):
The growing unpopularity of the Terror, combined with the increasing centralisation of power in the hands of Robespierre and his triumvirate, led to his arrest and execution on July 28, 1794, following the Coup of Thermidor.
The collapse of the Terror marked the end of the most radical phase of the revolution, and the influence of the CPS waned significantly after Robespierre’s death.
Key Dates and Figures:
September 17, 1793: Law of Suspects enacted.
October 16, 1793: Execution of Marie Antoinette.
October 24, 1793: Execution of 21 Girondin leaders.
November 6, 1793: Execution of Duc D’Orleans.
November 8, 1793: Execution of Madame Roland.
March 24, 1794: Execution of Hebertists.
April 5, 1794: Execution of Danton and Indulgents.
June 10, 1794: Law of 22 Prairial enacted.
July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor): Robespierre arrested and executed, marking the end of the Terror