psc reading

Pakistan born out of the 1947 partition; long history of political instability, military rule, ethnic/religious conflict, terrorism, and war. Legatum Institute ranks Pakistan at rac{138}{167} on prosperity.
Since about 2008, civilian rule has prevailed, but the military retains substantial political power.
Major challenge: basic services like energy; supply problems, not demand.
Energy comparison: the EU generates about 6{,}000 kWh per person per year; Pakistan provides less than rac{1}{10} imes 6{,}000 = 600 kWh per person per year, a figure stagnant for over two decades.
Pakistan is active in military nuclear development but civilian energy needs are unmet: only about half of what is required.
Pakistan suffers from a growing energy deficit and a weak fiscal/operational base to pay for inputs (oil, coal, gas).
Power theft is widespread; estimates suggest about frac{1}{4} of electricity produced is not paid for, draining revenues and depressing investment in generation.
Blackouts last days or more; increasingly common, exacerbated by hot summers increasing demand for air conditioning.
Population growth compounds the problem: population has doubled in roughly the last 30 years (P o 2P).
Insecurity and weak state institutions undermine legitimacy, which in turn undermines the ability to provide basic services.
Learning objectives: differentiate state, regimes, and governments; trace the development of the modern state; describe variations in legitimacy, centralization, and strength.

State: an organization that maintains a monopoly of force over a territory, with sovereignty—the ability to act independently within its borders.
Key functions of a state: pass and enforce laws, protect rights, resolve disputes, generate domestic security; maintain army and police; collect taxes; provide a social welfare system.
State capacity: ability to deliver public goods and services.
State autonomy: degree to which the state can act without being controlled by political actors or regimes.
Sovereignty and monopoly of force are central to the concept of the state as a primary authority within a territory.

State defined: monopoly of force over territory and the institutions that carry out policy, with sovereignty and a bundle of political tools (army, police, taxation, jurisdiction, welfare).
Regime defined: the long-term norms and rules that determine how power is exercised and distributed (regarding individual freedom, equality, and where power resides).
- Democratic regime vs nondemocratic regime.
- Regimes can be formal (constitutions) or informal; they can persist across changes in leaders.
- Regimes are not inherently good or bad; they are the software that shapes political action.
Government defined: the leadership that runs the state at any given time; may be elected or otherwise gained; operates the state within the constraints of the regime.
- Governments confront the regime and may have limited autonomy from it.
Distinction recap:
- State = enduring set of institutions and the monopoly of force.
- Regime = norms/rules guiding power and its use.
- Government = current leadership running the state.

Regime changes do not automatically erase long-standing political intuitions or structures.
France (1789) and the move from monarchy to First Republic; later changes including 1958 constitution to curb fragmentation and stabilize executive power.
South Africa: transition to democracy with a new constitution in 1996, expanding civil rights and recognizing multiple languages; still facing ongoing state pressures and security-institution influence.
Soviet Union (1991): collapse of communist regime; new states emerged, but many former communist-era norms persisted (centralization around a president and security elites).
Iran and Iraq: regime change did not guarantee immediate transition to liberal democracy; durable regime change can be constrained by embedded institutions.
Takeaway: regimes are deeply institutionalized; dramatic social events can alter them, but changes are often incomplete and require time and reform.

Government = leadership that runs the state; can be democratically elected or come to power by other means.
Governments articulate and implement ideas about freedom, equality, and the use of power, but are constrained by the existing regime.
Even strong governments face limits when confronting entrenched regime power; reform attempts can threaten stability.
Example tension: reformist attempts in large states may risk crisis if they challenge core regime norms.

State capacity: ability to deliver key services (energy, law, security, transportation, education, welfare).
State autonomy: degree to which leaders can implement policy without being pulled back by regime constraints or powerful interest groups.
Legitimacy: public belief that the state and its rulers have the right to govern; weak legitimacy erodes, increasing risk of disorder or collapse.
In practice, many states are a mix of high/low capacity and varying autonomy, with regimes shaping how power is exercised.

State = monopoly of force + sovereignty + policy implementation inside a territory.
Regime = long-run rules and norms governing power, freedom, and equality.
Government = current leadership running the state under a regime.
Pakistan case: energy supply constraints illustrate state capacity challenges and legitimacy implications.
Regime changes can transform politics, but deep institutional norms may persist and complicate reform.
Distinguishing feature: capacity (delivery of services) vs autonomy (policy independence from regime).