The Presidencies of George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton: Detailed Study Guide

The 1988 Presidential Election

The Candidates and Campaigns:
- Democrats: Mounted a campaign centered on for more effective government. Their nominee was the Massachusetts governor, Michael Dukakis. Dukakis struggled to effectively market his message to the electorate.
- Republicans: Nominated George H. W. Bush, who was serving as Ronald Reagan’s vice president. Initially, Bush trailed in the polls.
- Lee Atwater: Bush’s political adviser, Atwater, initiated a highly successful negative media campaign targeting Dukakis.
- Policy Platform: Bush adopted an economic strategy that mirrored Reagan’s, specifically pledging to shrink the size of government and keep taxes low. These promises resonated with the public, securing a Republican victory.

Economic Policy and the Republican Legacy

George H. W. Bush’s Inauguration: Sworn in as the $41\text{st}$ President on January $20$ , $1989$ .
Inherited Economic Problems: Despite promising to continue Reagan's economic legacy, Bush faced significant challenges:
- Reagan’s combination of tax cuts and increased defense spending had led to an explosion in the federal budget deficit.
- By $1989$ , the deficit was $3$ times larger than when Reagan took office in $1980$ .
The "No New Taxes" Pledge: During the $1988$ Republican Convention, Bush famously stated: “Read my lips: no new taxes.” This pledge significantly constrained his ability to manage the budget and reduce the deficit.
Political Gridlock: Bush faced a Congress controlled by Democrats, who favored raising taxes on the wealthy. Conversely, Republicans in the party base demanded significant cuts to domestic spending.
Government Shutdown and Compromise: Following a brief government shutdown in October $1990$ , Bush and Congress reached an agreement.
- Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990: This legislation aimed to reduce the deficit through a combination of cutting government expenditures and raising taxes.
- The Broken Pledge: By signing this act, Bush broke his “no new taxes” campaign promise, which alienated his conservative base.
Social Policy Limitations: Due to budget constraints, initiatives for education reform and anti-drug efforts were not robust. Bush instead promoted “a thousand points of light,” which encouraged private volunteers and community organizations to address social issues.

The End of the Cold War and the Collapse of the Soviet Union

Foreign Policy Approach: Bush’s attitude toward the Soviet Union was similar to Reagan’s; he sought to ease tensions through peace and cooperation.
Hands-off Approach to Pro-Democracy Movements: As pro-democracy demonstrations emerged across the communist eastern bloc, Bush maintained a cautious stance to avoid provoking the Soviet leadership.
The Fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989): Protesters in East Germany marched peacefully through checkpoints. Within hours, citizens from East and West Berlin began dismantling the wall.
Eastern Bloc Revolutions: The movement spread rapidly to Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania, leading to mostly peaceful revolutions and the collapse of communist governments. Unlike the Soviet interventions in Budapest ( $1956$ ) or Prague ( $1968$ ), the Soviet Union did not use force to restore order in $1989$ .
START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty): In July $1991$ , Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev signed this treaty in Moscow, committing both nations to reducing their nuclear arsenals by 25\text{%}.
Collapse of the USSR:
- In August $1991$ , Communist Party hardliners attempted a coup against Gorbachev to halt his reforms, but it failed due to widespread protests.
- By December $1991$ , the Soviet government collapsed.
- In January $1992$ , $12$ former Soviet republics formed the Commonwealth of Independent States to coordinate security and trade. The Cold War was officially over.

International Conflicts: Panama and the Persian Gulf

Invasion of Panama (December 1989):
- U.S. troops were sent to remove Manuel Noriega, an unpopular dictator and drug smuggler.
- Motivations: The Bush administration cited human rights, though critics noted Bush’s former CIA connections to Noriega and the U.S. interest in controlling the Canal Zone.
- Reaction: The United Nations denounced the invasion as a power grab, and many Panamanians protested the presence of U.S. military forces.
The Persian Gulf Crisis:
- Causes: In the $1980$ s, Iraq accumulated massive debt. Simultaneously, other Arab states increased oil production, driving prices down and hurting Iraq's economy.
- Invasion of Kuwait: After talks for financial assistance failed, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in August $1990$ .
- International Coalition: Bush assembled a coalition of $34$ countries, including NATO members and Middle Eastern nations such as Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Egypt. Bush called this collaborative effort the beginning of a “new world order.”
Military Missions:
- Operation Desert Shield: Initially sent troops to the region to defend Saudi Arabia.
- Congressional Approval: On January $14$ , Bush received authorization from Congress to use force.
- Operation Desert Storm: An air campaign followed by a land war that lasted only $100$ hours. Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait by the end of February $1991$ .
- Force Composition: Approximately $500,000$ U.S. soldiers were joined by over $200,000$ troops from $27$ other countries.
Aftermath and "Vietnam Syndrome": Bush chose not to remove Saddam Hussein from power to end the war quickly and avoid an open-ended commitment. He aimed to cure “Vietnam syndrome”—the public’s reluctance to engage in long foreign wars.
UN Resolution 687 (April 1991): Set peace terms and authorized the UN to maintain peace. This resolution was later used to justify strikes against Iraq in $1996$ , $1998$ , and the $2003$ invasion.

Domestic Policy and Judicial Debates

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990:
- Signed in July $1990$ , this landmark law banned discrimination against people with physical or mental impairments in workplaces, public accommodations, transportation, and communications.
- Requirements: Businesses of a certain size had to provide building ramps, wide doorways, and other accommodations.
- Controversy: Some businesses criticized the financial burden of these mandates. The Supreme Court later issued several rulings clarifying the scope of the term “disabled.”
Supreme Court Nominations:
- Clarence Thomas (1991): Nominated to replace the retiring Thurgood Marshall (the first African American justice). Thomas was a social conservative.
- Anita Hill Controversy: During confirmation hearings, Hill (a lawyer) accused Thomas of sexual harassment during their time at the EEOC. Thomas denied the charges and was confirmed by a narrow vote of $52$ to $48$ .
- Impact: Sexual harassment became a major public issue, and harassment complaints to the EEOC rose 50\text{%} by fall $1992$ .
Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992):
- Reaffirmed the right to an abortion established by Roe v. Wade ( $1973$ ) but introduced the “undue burden” test.
- The test strikes down laws that purposely place substantial obstacles in the way of a woman seeking an abortion, citing the due process clause of the $14\text{th}$ Amendment and an individual’s right to privacy.

The Ascent of William Jefferson Clinton and the 1992 Election

Bill Clinton’s Background: Born in $1946$ (Hope, Arkansas), Clinton overcame a troubled home life involving an abusive, alcoholic stepfather. He was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford and earned a law degree from Yale ( $1973$ ).
Political Career: Served as Arkansas Attorney General ( $1977$ ) and Governor (elected $1978$ , served from $1982$ – $1992$ ).
The 1992 Presidential Election:
- Challenges for Bush: Voters doubted his ability to solve domestic issues; conservatives were angry over his tax hike; others mocked his privileged New England/Ivy League background.
- New Democrats: Clinton campaigned as a “New Democrat,” favoring free trade and deregulation while promising tax hikes on the wealthy and welfare reform.
- Election Results: Clinton won with 43\text{%} of the popular vote and $370$ electoral votes (compared to Bush’s $188$ ).
- H. Ross Perot: The billionaire third-party candidate garnered 19\text{%} of the popular vote, the highest third-party showing since $1912$ .

The Clinton Presidency: Economic Policy and Deregulation

Economic Strategy:
- The administration focused on limiting spending, reducing the $60 \text{ billion}$ deficit, keeping interest rates low to encourage investment, and eliminating protectionist tariffs.
- Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993: Passed along party lines, it raised taxes on the top 1.2\text{%} of earners, lowered taxes for $15 \text{ million}$ low-income families, and provided tax breaks for 90\text{%} of small businesses.
Economic Performance:
- The $1990$ s saw the longest economic expansion in U.S. history.
- The national deficit went from a loss of $\text{\$}290 \text{ billion}$ in $1992$ to a surplus of more than $\text{\$}230 \text{ billion}$ in $2000$ .
- Unemployment reached a $30$ -year low of 3.9\text{%} in $2000$ , and inflation dropped to 2.3\text{%}.
- Homeownership rates rose from 64\text{%} to 67.5\text{%}.
Financial Modernization Act of 1999:
- Repealed the Glass-Steagall Acts, which had been in place since the Great Depression.
- Ended the mandatory separation between commercial and investment banks, allowing financial institutions to affiliate. This deregulation led to growth but was also linked to later serious abuses.

Trade and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Origins: Negotiated by the George H. W. Bush administration in December $1992$ between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
Clinton’s Role: Despite traditional Democratic opposition to free trade, Clinton pushed for its ratification in $1993$ . To address concerns from labor unions and environmentalists, he added side agreements for worker and environmental protection.
Purpose and Impact: NAFTA phased out tariffs and trade restrictions to create the world's largest common market of approximately $425 \text{ million}$ people. It was a key component of the move toward globalization.

The Legislative Battle: Health Care and the Contract with America

Health Care Reform Task Force: Clinton appointed Hillary Clinton to head the initiative.
Health Security Act (1993): A $1,342$ -page bill proposing universal coverage, employer-provided insurance, and limits on service costs. The bill failed after failing to gain support from either side.
Contract with America: Led by Republican leaders Newt Gingrich and Dick Armey, this document outlined $8$ specific reforms the GOP promised to enact if they won the $1994$ midterms.
1994 Midterm Results: Republicans gained $7$ Senate seats and $52$ House seats, taking control of Congress. Gingrich served as Speaker of the House from $1995$ to $1999$ .
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996): Known as “welfare-to-work,” this law set time limits on welfare, requiring recipients to start working within $2$ years of receiving benefits.

Social Policies and the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)

“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”: Clinton initially promised to end the ban on gay and lesbian individuals serving in the military. In January $1993$ , he compromised with military leaders; service members would not be asked their orientation, but would be dismissed if they discussed it openly.
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) of 1996: Defined marriage as a heterosexual union and allowed states to refuse recognition of same-sex marriages from other states. Though Clinton signed it and was personally opposed to same-sex marriage at the time, he later called for its repeal.
Progressive Social Stance: Clinton condemned discrimination against people with AIDS, appointed openly gay and lesbian individuals to high government positions, supported the ERA, and maintained affirmative action programs while opposing racial quotas.
1996 Election: Clinton’s economic successes helped him defeat Republican Senator Bob Dole.

Technology, Globalization, and the Information Age

Connectivity: The internet made news and people worldwide more accessible. Improved communication meant companies could manufacture goods in countries with lower labor costs and import them cheaply.
The Rise of Personal Computers: In the late $1970$ s and early $1980$ s, Apple, Commodore, and Tandy began offering assembled PCs. Electronic bulletin board systems (BBS) allowed for early information sharing via modems and phone lines.
Web Presence: In $1994$ , the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website.
Origins of the Technology: While investments by the Department of Defense in the $1960$ s laid the groundwork, it was not until the $1980$ s and $1990$ s that the internet and personal computers became central to everyday life, fueling the prosperity of the decade.