Chapter 1 Notes: Historic Fires, Injury Prevention, and Community Risk Reduction

Introduction

• Lessons are to be learned from past fires.
• Disastrous outcomes can be mitigated by educating people.
• Educators will be better prepared if they understand the evolution of this area of study.

The Five Es of Fire Prevention

• Engineering
• Enforcement
• Education
• Economic incentives
• Emergency response
• These five elements together form the framework for fire and life safety efforts (NFPA 4.1.1 references appear throughout the objectives).

Historical Fires in the United States

• The Great Chicago Fire (1871) — dates: $1871$ (October 8–10).
  • Contributing factors: densely packed buildings, mostly wood; woodworking industry, grain market, stockyards; inadequate firefighting resources; overworked/tired fire department.
  • Legacy: Fire Prevention Week established.
• Iroquois Theater Fire (1903) — date: $1903$ (December 30).
  • Contributing factors: overcrowding; seats made of wood and hemp; absence of fire alarm and fire box in front of the theater.
  • Later findings: serious safety code violations; ushers/ staff ill-prepared for fire response.
  • Code changes and reforms:
  • Outward-opening exit doors to remain unlocked and fitted with panic hardware.
  • Mandatory upgrades implemented.
• Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire (1911) — date: $1911$ (March 25).
  • Contributing factors: highly flammable materials; inefficient alarm system; deficiencies in fire escapes; desperate escape attempts; inadequate firefighting equipment.
  • Code changes and reform:
  • Paved the way for NFPA 101—Life Safety Code.
  • Sullivan-Hoey Law: separate fire prevention bureaus created in New York.
  • Changes in construction: stairways, elevators, sprinklers, doors, etc.
• Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Fire (1942) — date: $1942$ (November 28).
  • Contributing factors: exits not visible/accessed easily; decorations made of highly flammable material; overcapacity crowd.
  • Code changes and reform:
  • Nightclubs recognized as public places under fire department jurisdiction.
  • Special regulations governing exits, lighting, sprinklers, and use of combustible materials.
  • Recognition of burn treatment and respiratory management for burn victims.
• Our Lady of the Angels School Fire (1958) — date: $1958$ (December 1).
  • Contributing factors: wood-based interiors; floors coated with flammable waxes; fire safety devices absent or inaccessible; no direct alarm to fire department; alarm protocol delays.
  • Code changes and reform:
  • Schools must have fire detection devices and fire-fighting systems.
  • Structural changes recommended for hallways, stairwells, exits.
  • School personnel trained in fire safety; empowered to call fire department.
  • Monthly drills required.
• Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire (1977) — date: $1977$ (May 28).
  • Contributing factors: failure to remedy major safety defects; structural problems; substandard wiring; flammable building materials; shortage of exits; overcrowding; inspection gaps.
  • Code changes and reform:
  • Requirements for automatic sprinklers and fire alarm systems in new/existing assembly occupancies when occupancy exceeds $300$.
• MGM Grand Hotel Fire (1980) — date: $1980$ (November 21).
  • Contributing factors: poor structural design; installation errors; $83$ building code violations; damper left open; alarms not activated.
• The Station Nightclub Fire (2003) — date: $2003$ (February 20).
  • Contributing factors: wood-frame unsprinklered; interior surfaces of wood paneling, painted surfaces, and expanded foam insulation; restroom windows barred; alarm system not connected to fire department.
  • Code changes and reform:
  • Stricter automatic sprinkler protection.
  • Regulations for occupant distribution in public buildings.
  • Crowd managers mandated for gatherings exceeding $250$.
  • Egress inspection of buildings introduced.

16 Fire Fighter Life Safety Initiatives

• $1$ Define and advocate the need for a cultural change within the fire service relating to safety, incorporating leadership, management, supervision, accountability, and personal responsibility.
• $2$ Enhance the personal and organizational accountability for health and safety throughout the fire service.
• $3$ Focus greater attention on the integration of risk management with incident management at all levels, including strategic, tactical, and planning responsibilities.
• $4$ All firefighters must be empowered to stop unsafe practices.
• $5$ Develop and implement national standards for training, qualifications, and certification (including regular recertification) that are equally applicable to all firefighters based on the duties they are expected to perform.
• $6$ Develop and implement national medical and physical fitness standards that are equally applicable to all firefighters, based on the duties they are expected to perform.
• $7$ Create a national research agenda and data collection system that relates to the initiatives.
• $8$ Utilize available technology wherever it can produce higher levels of health and safety.
• $9$ Thoroughly investigate all firefighter fatalities, injuries, and near misses.
• $10$ Grant programs should support the implementation of safe practices and/or mandate safe practices as an eligibility requirement.
• $11$ National standards for emergency response policies and procedures should be developed and championed.
• $12$ National protocols for response to violent incidents should be developed and championed.
• $13$ Firefighters and their families must have access to counseling and psychological support.
• $14$ Public education must receive more resources and be championed as a critical fire and life safety program.
• $15$ Advocacy must be strengthened for the enforcement of codes and the installation of home fire sprinklers.
• $16$ Safety must be a primary consideration in the design of apparatus and equipment.
• Source: National Fallen Firefighters Foundation, Everyone Goes Home Program.

Fallacies of Human Behavior in Fires

• Myths:
  • People always panic.
  • In most serious fires, panic did not occur.
  • People become selfish and ineffectual.
• Real observations (Facts):
  • People are poor estimators of their risk and abilities to cope with hazards.
  • Family groups tend to adopt a group survival strategy.
  • People move toward the familiar.
  • A group leader can generally determine the outcome for everyone.
  • Learned irrelevance is a risk when safety signs are ignored due to familiarity.

Facts of Human Behavior in Fires

• People are poor estimators of risk and coping abilities; families act for group survival; people move toward familiar environments.
• A group leader often influences the outcome for all; ignoring safety signs can lead to learned irrelevance.

Occupant Characteristics and Other Factors Determining Human Behavior in Fires

• Age
• Gender
• Alertness
• Familiarity with the building
• Role and responsibility
• Commitment
• Focal point

Human Response to Cues

• Initial response often: ignore alarms and wait for further cues.
• Dissonance: people assume others will handle the situation (dissolution of responsibility).
• Most effective strategy: trained wardens facilitating the process, coupled with a live voice message identifying the problem/location and giving instructions.

Decision Making When Encountering a Fire

• Pre-movement time decisions are most critical.
• Variables influencing decisions:
  • Person's personality
  • Experience
  • Cognitive abilities
  • Information available about the situation
  • Time left before the situation becomes desperate
  • Other stakes involved

Training the Public for More Efficient Evacuation

• Staff training is most effective when delivered via classroom instruction followed by evacuation drills.
• Training provides a realistic simulation of the experience.
• All relevant information should be included when imparting evacuation training.
• Emphasize the importance of responding to alarms immediately.

Injury Prevention

• Fire service role has expanded to include emergency medical services.
• Injuries: any unintentional or intentional damage to the body.
• Many unintentional injuries can be prevented.

Early Pioneers and Their Contributions to Injury Prevention (1 of 3)

• Johann Peter Frank — Advocated injury prevention as part of comprehensive public health.
• Edward Godfrey — Wrote a pioneering article on injury prevention importance.
• Hugh DeHaven — Work led to safety belts, airbags, and structural changes.

Early Pioneers and Their Contributions to Injury Prevention (2 of 3)

• John E. Gordon — Described injuries as the result of host, agent, and environment.
• James J. Gibson (1961) — Defined the agents of injury.
• William Haddon, Jr. — Developed the “phase-factor matrix”; developed a list of 10 countermeasures to interfere with the energy transfer-injury process.

Early Pioneers and Their Contributions to Injury Prevention (3 of 3)

• Haddon continued: Three phases of prevention:
  • Primary prevention: efforts to stop an injury before it occurs.
  • Secondary prevention: efforts to reduce the seriousness of the injury once it has occurred.
  • Tertiary prevention: medical treatment and rehabilitation to reduce disability after injury occurs.

Injury Prevention Makes Strides

• Formation of the CDC’s Center for Injury Control.
• National Safe Kids Campaign® (NSKC).
• Risk Watch®.

Motor Vehicle Crashes and Prevention

• Leading cause of death for people from $1$ through $44$.
• Challenge for educators: convince the public to use available technology and refrain from dangerous behaviors (e.g., using a cell phone while driving).

Bicycle Injuries and Prevention

• Head injury is the leading cause of death in bicycle crashes.
• Tips for bicycle safety programs:
  • Use of helmets; guidance on helmet selection.
  • Proper clothing.
  • Safe behavior on roads.
  • Hand signals and obeying traffic signals.

Drowning and Prevention

• Water safety tips:
  • Adults must supervise children around water at all times.
  • Wear PFDs (personal flotation devices) for adults and children.
  • Fences around pools.
  • Teach children to respect pool rules at all times.
  • Ensure all family members learn to swim.

Burns and Prevention

• Burns are categorized by the heat source that damages the skin.
• Burn care depends on burn type:
  • Thermal
  • Chemical
  • Electrical
  • Radiation

Falls and Prevention

• Falls are preventable across all age groups.
• Experts offer recommendations to lower risk for children and older adults.

Poisoning and Prevention

• Poisoning prevention tips:
  • Lock medications and cleaners in original containers.
  • Dispose of unused medications properly.
  • Exercise extreme care when taking medications.
  • Keep medicines away from children.
  • Identify poisonous plants.
  • Install carbon monoxide detectors.
  • Know the Poison Help number.

Suffocation and Prevention

• Preventive measures to protect children from choking or suffocation:
  • Remove or keep potential hazards out of reach.
  • Do not give hard or overly smooth foods to children.
  • Practice safe eating and playing habits.

Effective Strategies for Injury Prevention

• Adoption of a culture of safety.
• Community involvement.
• Combine active solutions.
• Focused leadership collaborating with other agencies.
• Use of rewards to incentivize desired actions.

Community Risk Reduction

• Six basic steps:
  • Step $1$: Identify risks.
  • Step $2$: Prioritize risks.
  • Step $3$: Develop tactics to mitigate risks.
  • Step $4$: Prepare the community risk reduction plan.
  • Step $5$: Implement the plan for the community.
  • Step $6$: Monitor, evaluate, and modify the plan while tracking short-term and long-term results.

Where Does the Fire Service Go from Here?

• Fire and life safety educators can:
  • Network with other injury prevention agencies.
  • Integrate injury prevention messages into existing programs and presentations.
  • Monitor local risks and trends.
  • Take a leadership role in creating a local injury prevention coalition.

Summary (1 of 3)

• Fire and life safety educators should learn from the past and apply history’s lessons to current practices.
• All $5$ Es of prevention are necessary to effectively prevent fire: $Engineering, Enforcement, Education, Economic incentives, Emergency response$.

Summary (2 of 3)

• Everyone must be educated about the reasons behind codes and enforcement.
• Human behavior in emergency situations is more rational and altruistic than previously believed.
• Educators can provide people with situations to fall back on in times of emergency.

Summary (3 of 3)

• Injury prevention education is a responsibility of the fire service along with fire prevention education.
• Community risk reduction (CRR) is a strategic planning process for fire and injury prevention.
• Everyone is responsible for teaching fire and life safety, and everyone should invest the time to learn about this field of the fire service.