Comprehensive Study Notes: Middle Kingdom Egypt and Early Mesopotamia
Mentuhotep II and the Reunification of Egypt
The 11th Dynasty and Reification:
Mentuhotep II was the first ruler of the 11th Dynasty.
He is credited with the reunification of Egypt.
His reign marked a significant increase in historical records and the construction of monumental buildings.
Mentuhotep II reigned quietly for 14 years until a civil war erupted between Herakleopolis and Thebes.
The Tomb of the Warriors:
Located at Deir El-Bahri, near his funerary complex.
Contains the unmummified, linen-wrapped bodies of 60 soldiers killed in battle.
The bodies exhibit severe trauma, including fractured skulls and arrow wounds.
There is evidence of injuries from carrion birds, suggesting the bodies lay on the field before burial.
Their proximity to the king's complex suggests they were involved in a key battle or held significant importance to him.
The Temple of Mentuhotep:
Located adjacent to the Tomb of the Warriors; very little remains of the structure today.
The design was intended to symbolize Egyptian reunification under his rule.
The temple focuses on an Osiris belief system.
The structure on top is debated; it may have been a mastaba tomb or a pyramid.
An unfinished tomb or cenotaph is reached via a tunnel to the East, containing a statue of Mentuhotep dressed as Osiris.
Partially unlooted burials of his wives and daughters were also discovered in this area.
Amenemhat I and the 12th Dynasty
Strategic Shifts and Origins:
Amenemhat I was the first ruler of the 12th Dynasty.
He transferred the capital from Thebes to Itjtawy, located in the Faiyum region.
He is known as "Amemenemhat-Itj-tawy," meaning "seizer of two lands." This title hints at a violent beginning to his reign and suggests he was a usurper rather than a blood relative to earlier kings.
The 12th Dynasty consciously looked back to the Old Kingdom for inspiration.
Military and Economic Expansion:
The dynasty initiated the first true military campaigns against Western Asia.
Senwosret I, successor to Amenemhat I (who was likely murdered), began transforming Lower Nubia (modern-day Sudan) into Egyptian territory.
He moved Egyptian interests further South, launching a large-scale international trade and massive building program.
Senwosret I used building projects to undermine the power of temple elites.
Quarrying and stone extraction were active in the Wadi Hammamat.
The Rise of Osiris and Beni Hasan:
The Cult of Osiris gained ascendency during this period, leading to a leveling of belief in the afterlife.
Non-royals began building their own tombs more frequently.
Beni Hasan:
A site containing hundreds of tombs from the Middle Kingdom, as well as some from the Old Kingdom and Intermediate periods.
The site provides insight into the Nomarchs (rulers) of the Oryx nome.
Definition of Nome: A territorial division in ancient Egypt, each ruled by a nomarch.
Oryx Nome: Named after a type of antelope.
Notable Tombs at Beni Hasan
Tomb 2 - Amenemhat:
Amenemhat was a Nomarch of the Oryx nome.
His tomb features a large room with columns and painted scenes of daily life, wrestling, and siege scenes.
He accompanied a military expedition to Kush, likely under the reign of Amenemhat II.
Tomb 3 - Khnumhotep II:
Served during the reigns of Amenemhat II and Senwosret II.
Titled "Overseer of the Eastern Desert."
Famous for depictions of Asiatics (people from Western Asia) on his tomb walls.
The painted scene shows figures with curlier hair and beards bringing black eye paint as a gift.
The procession is led by Abisha, explicitly labeled as the "ruler of a foreign land," accompanied by his sons and a servant leading an oryx.
Tomb 15 - Baqet III:
Nomarch of the Oryx nome who was originally neutral but switched allegiance to Thebes.
The North wall depicts Baqet III and his wife in daily life (cattle, prisoners, farming, hunting).
The Eastern wall features a besieged fortress (a fortified location cut off from supplies/reinforcements) and 220 pairs of wrestling men.
Tomb 17 - Khety:
A Nomarch of the 12th Dynasty; this tomb is his only known record.
The style is similar to Tomb 15, leading to speculation that Baqet III was his father.
The tomb features wrestlers, farmers, workers, and a fortress siege.
Egyptian Defense and Nubian Fortresses
Phases of Construction:
Phase 1 (Senwosret I): Established fortresses at Qubban, Anibam, Serra East, Faras, and potentially Buhen and Mirgissa.
Phase 2 (Senwosret III): Established fortresses at Askut, Shalfak, Uronarti, Semna, and Kumma.
Strategic Characteristics:
Built at the 2nd and 3rd cataracts (large waterfalls or rapids) of the Nile.
Placed in strategic positions near each other and within sight of one another.
Total of 17 forts constructed in Nubia (Northern Sudan).
Many are now submerged under Lake Nasser due to the Aswan Dam construction, though they were partially documented by mid-20th-century rescue excavations.
Purpose:
To secure trade routes for gold, ebony, and ivory.
To defend against the rising Kingdom of Kush.
Case Studies:
Buhen: Originally an Old Kingdom colonial post for copper working. The Middle Kingdom fort was massive: long, walls thick and high, with a deep moat, drawbridges, catapults, and archer loops.
Semna: Fortified under Senwosret I at the second cataract. Consists of a complex of three fortresses: Kumma (East bank), one on the West bank, and another south of the West bank. The location was chosen due to the Semna gorge being one of the narrowest parts of the Nile, allowing monitoring of local Nubians and trade.
Uronarti: A fortress that, towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, began to lose significance as Egyptian borders became less secure.
Execration Texts:
Inscriptions on clay figurines, bowls, or pots naming enemies (foreign rulers or rebels) followed by a curse.
The objects were ritually smashed, buried, or burned.
The belief was that destroying the representation would magically destroy the person.
The Hyksos and the Second Intermediate Period
The Transition:
The transition from the 12th to the 13th Dynasty was marked by the death of Queen Sobekneferu without an heir.
The 13th Dynasty was weak and unable to hold territory.
The 14th Dynasty, a breakaway dynasty, appeared in the Nile Delta.
The Hyksos (15th Dynasty):
"Hyksos" is a Greek word for "rulers of foreign land."
They were non-Egyptian people from the Levant who infiltrated slowly rather than through a sudden invasion.
They did not bring radical changes to material culture (ceramics and eating habits remained largely the same).
They controlled the Nile Delta, leading to the fall of Itjtawy and Memphis.
Trade with the Northern Levant grew the wealth of the Hyksos elite.
Tell el-Dab'a (Avaris):
Capital city during the 15th Dynasty Hyksos rule in the North.
Originally a planned settlement founded by Amenemhat I with numerous harbors for land, sea, and river trade.
Area saw high levels of migrants and refugees from the Levant.
Tombs here differ from Egyptian ones; they used mud-brick chapels because rock was unavailable in the delta.
Archaeologists found 16 right hands buried under the palace throne room. This is speculated to be a tradition where soldiers displayed the right hand of an enemy to the king to receive payment.
The End of the Hyksos:
Ahmose I began a campaign to reconquer Lower Egypt in the 11th year of the Hyksos king Khamudi.
Ahmose I captured Heliopolis and the strategic site of Tjaru to cut off Hyksos reinforcements from the Levant.
Avaris was captured on the fourth attempt, followed by the conquest of Sharuhen (Gaza).
Post-expulsion, a New Kingdom palace was built featuring Minoan-style frescoes (watercolors on wet plaster), including bull-leaping scenes common to Minoan, Egyptian, Indian, and Babylonian cultures.
Mesopotamia: Geography and Technology
The River System:
Life centered on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Flow originates from Anatolia via snow melt and rainfall.
Peak water volume occurs during April-May.
Modern dams (since the 1960s-70s) have reduced flow in the upper parts.
Environment and Resources:
Mesopotamia consists of an alluvial plain watered by the rivers, bounded by desert and mountains.
Southern Mesopotamia lacked wood, gold, and silver but had an abundance of mud and bitumen (used for waterproofing and mastics).
Mud brick architecture became the norm for domestic dwellings, palaces, and temples.
Technological Innovations:
Canal Irrigation: Essential for turning the desert into fertile agricultural zones. Cities were often located between (not on) the rivers due to this network.
Seeder Plough: Increased land productivity.
The Uruk Period and Urbanization
Key Features of the Uruk Period:
Increased social stratification (hierarchical ranking based on wealth, power, etc.).
Increased agricultural production and centralized religion.
Development of writing and increase in settlement size (cities with populations up to 50,000 people).
Cities were surrounded by defensive systems.
Temples became larger and more elaborate, built by organized labor forces.
Appearance of mass production, specifically ceramics and the introduction of the fast-wheel.
The City of Uruk:
Special status in Sumerian mythology as the home of Gilgamesh.
Divided into two main precincts:
Kullaba/Anu Precinct: Dedicated to the sky god. Dominated by the "White Temples" featuring tripartite design on an irregular mudbrick platform. This saw the first construction of a Ziggurat (rectangular stepped tower with a temple on top).
Eanna (House of Heaven) Precinct: Larger area with many temples. Notable for a pillar hall decorated with ceramic cones. The mud brick did not survive well, but the pillared portico did.
Leadership and Economy:
Controlled by "Priest-kings," depicted with beards, long hair, and distinctive headdresses.
Uruk operated as a "temple-economy," where the temple controlled much of the city's wealth and agricultural produce.
Developing warfare and inner-city rivalry led to the beginning of military iconography.
The "Uruk Vase" displays the symbolic marriage of Dumasi with Inana.
Writing and Expansion:
Proto-literate script developed: a pictographic script arising from complex tokens of the Ubaid period.
This was the earliest form of Cuneiform, used primarily for agricultural records rather than literature.
Uruk Expansion: Colonies were established in strategic environmental and trading positions to secure goods. These colonies either subsumed existing settlements or were founded on virgin soil.
Cross-Cultural Connections: Serpopards
Definition: A modern portmanteau of "serpent" and "leopard."
Imagery: A mythical creature with a feline body and head, but a long serpent neck. Frequently depicted as two creatures with intertwined necks.
Symbolism:
Egypt: Symbolized the chaos existing beyond Egypt's borders.
Mesopotamia: Represented natural vitality and life breaking from the earth.