APES (UNIT 4)

Lecture 1: Geosphere (p. 261-282)

I. The Geosphere

  • Concept: Represents rocks and minerals on and below Earth's surface.

    • Crust: Thin, cool, rocky outer layer of the Earth.

    • Mantle: Very hot and mostly solid, located beneath the crust.

    • Core: Divided into two parts:

      • Outer Core: Molten metal.

      • Inner Core: Solid metal.

II. Plate Tectonics

  • Concept: The crust and mantle divided into tectonic plates.

    • Lithosphere: Composed of the crust and uppermost mantle; divided into tectonic plates.

    • Asthenosphere: Soft middle mantle; heated by the outer core.

    • Lower Mantle: Composed of solid rock.

  • Processes and Effects:

    • Convection Currents: Movements within the asthenosphere that facilitate plate movement.

    • Collisions and Separations: Result in various landforms (mountains, valleys).

  • Plate Boundaries:

    • Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide; can form mountains or cause subduction.

    • Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart; can result in the creation of new oceanic crust.

    • Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other; associated with faults and earthquakes.

Lecture 2: Atmosphere (pgs 105-120)

I. Composition of Atmosphere

  • Definition: A thin layer of gases held to the planet by gravity.

    • Major Components: Mostly nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), with trace amounts of other gases (argon, CO2, water vapor).

II. Layers of the Atmosphere

  • Troposphere: The lowest layer where weather occurs; temperature decreases with altitude.

  • Stratosphere: Contains ozone layer; temperature increases with altitude.

  • Mesosphere: Middle layer; temperature decreases again with altitude.

  • Thermosphere: Temperature increases significantly; contains the ionosphere.

  • Exosphere: Outer layer; where atmospheric particles escape into space.

III. Global Wind Patterns

  • Factors Influencing Winds:

    1. Uneven Heating: Varies due to Earth's angle and solar radiation.

    2. Solar Variability: Influences wind and weather patterns.

    3. Earth’s Rotation: Impacts wind direction and patterns (Coriolis effect).

Lecture 3: Atmospheric and Ocean Currents (pgs 105-120)

I. Global Climate Patterns

  • Convection Cells: Circulate air and regulate temperature.

    • Hadley Cells: Warm air rises at the equator and descends at 30° latitude; associated with tropical rainforests.

    • Ferrell Cells: Found between 30° and 60°; create arid conditions and deserts.

    • Polar Cells: Located at the poles; maintain dry conditions.

  • Prevailing Winds: Result from high to low-pressure systems influenced by the Earth’s rotation.

II. Ocean Currents

  • Surface Currents: Distribute warm and cold water across the globe.

  • Deep Currents: Transport nutrients from the ocean depths.

  • Gyres: Large-scale water circular patterns created by surface winds.

  • Upwelling: Nutrient-rich water rises to the surface from the ocean depths; supports marine ecosystems.

  • ENSO: El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects global weather patterns, altering wind and water distribution.