The Mid-Tudor Crisis: Royal Authority and Religious Transformation under Edward VI

Authority Under Edward VI and the Issues of a Minority Reign

• Succession Context (1546): By late $1546$, it was evident that the declining health of Henry VIII would lead to a minor succeeding the throne. To manage this, Henry’s will proposed a regency council.
• The Regency Council Structure:     * The council was intended to consist of both Conservatives and Reformists with equal powers.     * Its mandate was to govern the country until Edward reached the age of $18$.
• Manipulation of the Will:     * William Paget likely drafted the uncontroversial first part of the will in December $1546$ with Henry’s knowledge.     * Strategic spaces were left between the clauses and the signature for further amendments.     * Details concerning the Regency Council were added when Henry was too close to death to intervene or alter them.
• Seymour’s Power Grab:     * Edward Seymour utilized a loophole to gain full control of the council, effectively granting himself monarchical power.     * He ensured the council was packed with $15$ of his closest allies.     * Anthony Denny, keeper of the Dry Stamp (a facsimile of the King’s signature), was involved in the plan to facilitate the necessary changes to the will.
• Implementation of the Succession:     * Henry’s Third Act of Succession was technically fulfilled as Edward succeeded him.     * Despite contradicting Henry’s egalitarian council plan, Somerset taking power was viewed as natural because he was the King's uncle and a successful soldier from the Scottish wars of the $1540s$.     * A council of $16$ members with equal votes was seen as unrealistic and prone to factional deadlock; only Somerset's enemies questioned the legality of his protectorate.
• Concerns of Minority Rule:     * Edward was unable to lead troops into battle.     * He was vulnerable to exploitation by domestic factions or by foreign powers during international negotiations.     * The 1549 rebellions are often attributed to the perceived weakness of the minor monarch.
• Loyalty to the Crown: Unlike the rebellions of $1381$, $1450$, or $1497$, the rebels of $1549$ did not aim to usurp Edward. When the Royal herald reached Kett’s camp in Norwich, the rebels cried, "God save King Edward."

The Rule of Lord Protector Somerset ($1547$–$1549$)

• Consolidation of Power:     * Seymour was elevated to the title of Duke of Somerset.     * He obtained sole custody of the dry stamp and demanded that his countersignature be present for the King's signature to be valid.     * He bypassed traditional government by using his own household servants, such as Sir Thomas Smith, as government officials.     * Sir Michael Stanhope was appointed Groom of the Stool in $1547$, placing a loyalist in a key position near the King.
• Removal of Opposition:     * Thomas Wrottesley, the Earl of Southampton and leading Conservative on the Council, was dismissed from the chancellorship on charges of selling offices to delegates.     * Thomas Seymour (Somerset’s brother and Lord High Admiral) attempted a coup to seize Edward; he was subsequently executed.
• Financial and Personal Conduct:     * Somerset built lavishly and accumulated fees and chantry lands, adding $£5,000$ to his substantial income.
• Style of Government:     * Somerset attempted to rule without the Privy Council or Parliament.     * He relied heavily on proclamations; while Henry VIII averaged $6$ per year, Edward’s reign saw $19$ per year, and Somerset issued $77$ during his short tenure.     * He established a "New Council" at Somerset House, effectively excluding the official Privy Council.
• Social and Economic Policy:     * Enclosure: In $1548$, he established commissions under John Hales to investigate enclosures. In June $1548$, he issued a proclamation blaming enclosure for extreme poverty.     * Legislative Failure: John Hales introduced $3$ bills on enclosure to Parliament in $1548$, but failed to bring proceedings against any actual enclosures by $1549$. This lack of action was seen as legitimizing the Kett rebellion.     * Finance: He continued the policy of debasement at full speed and attempted no major financial reforms.
• Military Affairs:     * Somerset led the army to victory at the Battle of Pinkie against the Scots.     * He failed to press the advantage despite occupying main border strongholds.     * During the $1549$ rebellions, his military indecision and refusal to pull troops from Scottish and French garrisons allowed uprisings to escalate.
• Downfall: Nineteen Council members accused him of "malice and evil government… pride, covetousness and extreme ambition."

The Coup and Rise of Northumberland

• The Anti-Somerset Faction: Consisted of the Earl of Warwick (John Dudley), William Paget, and Wriothesley. Their primary commonality was a dislike of Somerset’s methods.
• The Events of October 1549:     * Somerset retreated to Hampton Court as he lost control.     * On October $5^{th}$, he summoned all "loyal English men" to defend him and the King.     * On October $6^{th}$, he moved the King to Windsor Castle. Edward complained of being treated like a prisoner, stating, "me thinks I am in prison."     * Edward's refusal to support Somerset’s claims of street riots led to Somerset's arrest within a week.
• Warwick’s Consolidation:     * Warwick outmaneuvered religious conservatives by bringing in Protestant allies.     * By January $1550$, the Earls of Arundel and Southampton (Catholics) were dismissed. Warwick was appointed Lord President of the Council.
• The Fate of Somerset:     * Initially pardoned in February $1550$ and restored to some offices; a marriage was even arranged between their families.     * Rumors surfaced in April $1551$ of Somerset conspiring with the Earls of Derby and Shrewsbury to overthrow Warwick.     * Somerset attempted to restore Stephen Gardiner (deprived of office for not following the $1549$ Act of Uniformity).     * In October $1551$, Warwick became the Duke of Northumberland. He arrested Somerset on $16^{th}$ October $1551$ on $33$ false charges, including planning the murder of Warwick.     * Somerset was beheaded on January $22^{nd}$, $1552$, on Tower Hill.

Government Under Lord President Northumberland ($1550$–$1553$)

• Administrative Reforms:     * Northumberland staffed the royal household with his men to control access to Edward. Sir John Gates, as Vice Chamberlain, held the dry stamp and reported the King's movements.     * He chaired the Council as Lord President, allowing him to fix agendas and meetings.     * He expanded the Council to $33$ members to include his supporters and military specialists.     * An inner committee was created to manage daily business, restoring the Privy Council to the center of government.     * He preferred using Parliament to confirm legislation rather than relying on proclamations.
• Financial Stabilization:     * Treaty of Boulogne ($1550$): Ended the war with France, returning Boulogne for $400,000$ crowns. This reduced expenditure but was viewed as a national disgrace.     * Coinage: Conducted one last debasement for a profit of $£114,000$ to cover short-term debts. He borrowed $£243,000$ from continental bankers.     * Long-term Planning: Appointed William Cecil and Sir Thomas Gresham to financial planning. By March $1552$, silver levels in coins were restored to $1527$ levels, slowing inflation.     * Debt Reduction: Crown debts fell from $£300,000$ in $1550$ to $£180,000$ by $1553$.
• Social Policy: Withdrew enclosure commissions and repealed the unpopular $1549$ sheep tax in $1550$.
• The Maturation of Edward VI:     * Edward’s role increased; by late $1551$, he attended Council meetings and set some agendas.     * In March $1551$, at age $13$, he personally confronted his sister Mary regarding her hearing Mass.     * The age of majority was lowered from $18$ to $16$.     * A $1553$ coin design depicted the King on horseback to project a mature image.

Religious Legislation and the Protestant Revolution

• Early Measures ($1547$):     * Book of Homilies (July $1547$): Provided Protestant sermons for daily worship.     * Royal Injunctions: Clergy ordered to preach in English every Sunday, provide an English Bible, and remove "superstitious" statues/images.     * Repeals: The Act of Six Articles ($1539$) and the Treason Act were repealed to allow free religious discussion.     * Dissolution of the Chantries (Nov $1547$): Shut down $2,374$ chantries to seize assets for war funding.
• The First Phase of Uniformity ($1548$–$1549$):     * First Prayer Book (Dec $1548$): Written by Cranmer; established English liturgy and clerical marriage but kept the definition of the Eucharist as transubstantiation.     * First Act of Uniformity ($1549$): Made the Prayer Book official; banned singing masses for the dead.
• The Radical Phase ($1552$):     * New Treason Act (Jan $1552$): Criminalized questioning Royal Supremacy or articles of faith.     * Second Book of Common Prayer (Jan $1552$): Removed all Catholic traces and established the Eucharist as consubstantiation.     * Second Act of Uniformity (Nov $1552$): Mandated use of the Second Prayer Book; made church attendance compulsory for laity and clergy.
• The 42 Articles ($1552$): Based on the doctrine of justification by faith alone; they never became law due to Edward's death in $1553$.
• John Hooper and the Vestments Controversy: Radical reformer John Hooper campaigned against Catholic vestments. He was imprisoned in January $1551$ before compromising to become Bishop of Gloucester.

Reactions and the Socio-Economic Crisis

• Popular Resistance:     * Western Rebellion ($1549$): Triggered by the murder of William Body ($1548$) and the use of the new Prayer Book on Whitsunday. Demands included the return of the Six Articles, Latin services, and the inclusion of Cardinal Reginald Pole in the Council. Rebels attacked gentry at St Michael’s Mount crying "Kill the Gentlemen!"     * Kett Rebellion ($1549$): Driven by enclosure and a $5\%$ tax on sheep (passed March $1549$). Led by Robert Kett, rebels seized Norwich. The 'Norfolk Articles' were drafted by a representative council.
• Extent of Change:     * Iconoclastic riots occurred in London, East Anglia, and Lincolnshire, often led by continental Protestant refugees.     * Statistical Resistance: Wills in $1549$ showed very low Protestantism rates: $1\%$ in the South-West, $2\%$ in York, $8\%$ in Kent, and $27\%$ in Suffolk.     * Clerical Ignorance: In Gloucester, Bishop Hooper found that out of $311$ clergy, only $10$ could recite the Lord’s Prayer and $171$ did not know the Ten Commandments.
• Socio-Economic Factors:     * Inflation: Prices in $1546$ were $150\%$ higher than in $1508$ due to the debasement of the coinage.     * Population: England's population grew from $2.3$ million ($1525$) to $3$ million ($1551$).     * Vagrancy Act ($1547$): Out-of-work individuals could be branded with a 'V' and sold into slavery for $2$ years. It was widely ignored by local authorities.     * Public Order: Proclamations in $1548$ banned football (to prevent riots) and assembly; offenders were sent to row on galleys.
• Suppression of Rebellions:     * Western: Lord Russell killed $3,000$ rebels; Robert Welsh was hanged on his church tower.     * Kett: Warwick slaughtered $3,000$ rebels in August $1549$; Kett and $49$ others were hanged in November.