Comprehensive Study Notes on the Genghisid Empire, Persian Dynasties, Islamic Mamluks, and the Ottoman Empire

The Genghisid Mongols and Successor Khanates

• Tolui Khan's Sacrifice and Lineage:

  • Tolui Khan offered his health and life to save his brother Ogdai Khan, praying to take Ogdai's sickness and death upon himself. Ogdai Khan recovered completely while Tolui Khan's health rapidly deteriorated until his death.

  • Tolui Khan left behind four prominent sons: Mungku Khan, Kublai Khan, Arigh Boke, and Hulagu Khan. Both Ogdai Khan and Guyuk Khan treated Tolui's sons with immense affection and high esteem.

  • Following the demise of Guyuk Khan, Batu Khan (son of Juchi Khan and King of Qabchag) was recognized across the empire as strong, wise, and influential. Despite opposition from some factions regarding his right to choose, Batu Khan's preference prevailed, bringing Mungku Khan to the throne of the Great Khan by broad consensus.

• Reign and Military Campaigns of Mungku Khan:

  • Mungku Khan ascended the throne in 648 A.H. and demonstrated great favor, kindness, and justice toward his Muslim subjects.

  • He entrusted the governance and expansion of Khitai (northern China) to his brother Kublai Khan, while dispatching his brother Hulagu Khan toward Persia at the head of a massive army of 120,000 men.

  • In 654 A.H., Mungku Khan sent formal demands of obedience to the Chinese king, invading China when the king refused. Mungku Khan died in 655 A.H. in Chankad during this military expedition after ruling for 7 years.

• Ascension of Kublai Khan and Civil War:

  • Kublai Khan, who accompanied Mungku Khan on the campaign, was enthroned immediately in Chankad upon Mungku's death. Simultaneously, Arigh Boke claimed the throne at Karakorum and declared himself King of the Mongols.

  • The brothers clashed in a fierce battle at Kuluran; Arigh Boke suffered defeat but escaped unhurt, allowing Kublai Khan to enter Karakorum and take the central throne.

  • Arigh Boke rallied fresh forces in Khitai, was defeated again, fled to Kashgar in western China, and launched renewed attacks. This civil war persisted for 4 years until Arigh Boke was arrested, imprisoned, and subsequently died in captivity.

• Territorial Expansion and Governance under Kublai Khan:

  • In 655 A.H., Kublai Khan issued formal imperial decrees commanding Hulagu Khan to govern all conquered territories extending from across the Oxus River to Syria.

  • Internal strife between Kublai Khan and Arigh Boke severely weakened central authority and diminished the prestige of the Karakorum court, prompting several provincial governors and princes to declare sovereignty.

  • Kublai Khan completed the conquest of China after protracted warfare. He founded the magnificent new capital city of Ta Tu (later Pei-p'ing, corrupted to Peking by Westerners, and currently known as Beijing), shifted his capital there from Karakorum, and forced Siam, Burma, and Japan to pay annual tribute.

  • Kublai Khan appointed four principal ministers representing four distinct religions, including a Muslim minister named Amir Ahmad Banakti. At its peak, nominal Mongol sovereignty extended across Eurasia from China to Europe.

• Religious Inquiries and Mass Execution Incidents:

  • Non-Muslim factions (Christians, Magians, and Jews) gained influence at court and sought to turn Kublai Khan against Muslims. Abaqa Khan (son of Hulagu Khan) wrote to Kublai Khan from Khurasan, warning that non-Muslims claimed the Qur'an commanded Muslims to kill polytheists wherever found.

  • Kublai Khan summoned Muslim scholars and questioned them directly regarding this command. When the scholars confirmed the verse's existence and candidly admitted they had not acted on it due to a current lack of military power, Kublai Khan ordered the immediate execution of those scholars and issued general decrees for a mass massacre of Muslims.

  • Scholars Badruddin Baihaqi and Hamiduddin Samarkandi rushed to court to intervene, explaining that the Qur'anic injunction was a protective measure targeting bloodthirsty idolaters of the prophetic era, and did not apply to a ruler like Kublai Khan who acknowledged the Oneness of God and placed God's name at the head of imperial decrees. Pleased by this explanation, Kublai Khan abrogated his execution orders.

  • Kublai Khan died at age 73 after a 35-year reign. His grandson Temur Khan succeeded him in China. Public administration fell into deep disorder, and following Temur Khan's death in 700 A.H., the central Mongol Empire effectively ceased to exist.

• Hulagu Khan's Campaigns and the Fall of Baghdad:

  • Mungku Khan dispatched Hulagu Khan with 120,000 men to eradicate the Batiniyah Ismailis at Ala-Mut Fort and to confront the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad if he showed hostility. Amir Ichol (son of Amir Qarachar) served as military commander.

  • Hulagu Khan arrived in Khurasan and Iran in 651 A.H. The rulers of Azerbaijan, Shirvan, and Girjistan submitted to him. Ala-Mut Fort fell in Dhul Qadah 656 A.H.; Ismaili ruler Shah Ruknuddin Khurshah was arrested, sent toward Karakorum, and executed along with his family on the way. Plundered Ismaili treasures were sent to Mungku Khan.

  • Scholar Khawaja Nasiruddin Tusi joined Hulagu Khan's court through flattery. Tusi and the Caliph's minister, Alqami, conspired with Hulagu Khan, leading to the invasion and utter devastation of Baghdad.

  • Hulagu Khan set up his capital at Maragheh. Rulers offering allegiance included Atabak S'ad bin Abu Bakr of Persia, Badruddin Lulu of Mosul, and Sultan Azizuddin Seljuk of Rome. In Ramadan 657 A.H., Hulagu conquered Nasibain, Harran, Halab, and Damascus, placing Syria under Governor Kasuga.

• Conflict with Berke Khan and Death of Hulagu Khan:

  • Egyptian forces invaded Syria and repulsed Mongol troops. Hulagu Khan's plans to retake Syria were halted by Mungku Khan's death and a outbreak of war with Berke Khan (son of Juchi Khan, ruler of the Golden Horde).

  • Enraged by Hulagu Khan's execution of a relative, the murder of the Caliph of Baghdad, and the general massacre of Muslims, Berke Khan dispatched Buga Khan with 30,000 troops. After initial clashes, Hulagu led an army in 661 A.H. and won a battle, but Berke Khan subsequently dealt Hulagu a decisive, crushing defeat.

  • A general sent by Hulagu Khan to recruit Kara Tartar tribes in Syria revolted against him. Overwhelmed by dejection and frustration, Hulagu Khan died in a coma in 663 A.H. at age 48 after an 8-year reign.

  • Hulagu Khan established an astronomical observatory in Maragheh with Nasiruddin Tusi. He appointed his son Abagha Khan over Iraq and Khurasan, his second son over Azerbaijan, Saldoz over Dayar-e-Bakr and Dayar-e-Rabi'a, Khawaja Shamsuddin Muhammad Jawini as Minister, and Ata al-Mulk Alauddin as ruler of Baghdad.

  • Hulagu Khan was buried in a subterranean grave room alongside living young girls dressed in costly garments and ornaments, after which the chamber was sealed. During his reign, Sultan Balban ruled India; Indian forces successfully repulsed intermittent Mongol raids.

• Abagha Khan to Ghazan Khan (Mahmud Khan):

  • Abagha Khan ascended the throne on Ramadan 2, 663 A.H., after obtaining permission from Kublai Khan. He appointed Bashmut over Shirvan and Mazandaran, Teshen over Khurasan, Tuhan Bahadur over Rome, Turan over territories near Rome, Arghun Aga over Finance, Khawaja Shamsuddin as Prime Minister, and Arghun Khan as instructor to Mehrtaq Nawyan Birlas.

  • Abagha Khan defeated Baraq Khan Chogatai in Khurasan. He died in 680 A.H.; he was a devoted follower of Sheikh S'adi Shirazi and Jalaluddin Rumi.

  • Nakudar Aghlan (Sultan Ahmad Khan) succeeded Abagha Khan, embraced Islam, appointed Sheikh Kamaluddin Abdur Rahman al-Rafe'i as Minister, and promoted Islamic practices. His brother Arghun Khan revolted, leading to Ahmad Khan's martyrdom in 683 A.H. after a 3-year reign.

  • Arghun Khan appointed a Jew named S'adullah as Prime Minister, ordering the massacre of thousands of Muslim scholars. Arghun died in 690 A.H. after taking herbal longevity remedies prescribed by a Hindu ascetic.

  • Gaykhatu Khan succeeded Arghun Khan. In 693 A.H., he introduced paper currency called "Yut" bearing the Kalimah; public outcry and commercial disruption forced its cancellation. Mongol commanders martyred him due to his attachment to Islam.

  • Baydu Khan (grandson of Hulagu) succeeded Gaykhatu Khan. Amir Nawruz Beg (son of Arghun Aga Awirat, who ruled Khurasan for 30 years until his death in 696 A.H.) persuaded Prince Ghazan Khan (son of Arghun Khan) to accept Islam at the hand of Sadruddin Hamwi, adopting the name Mahmud Khan.

  • Sultan Mahmud Ghazan Khan defeated and assassinated Baydu Khan in 694 A.H.

• Reign of Mahmud Ghazan Khan and Later Ilkhanids:

  • Mahmud Ghazan Khan appointed Nawruz Beg as Minister/Commander, engraved the Kalimah on coins, and placed "Allah, the Most High" on official seals. Due to court intrigues, Nawruz Beg, his family, and Minister Khawaja Sadruddin were killed; Khawaja Rashiduddin became Minister in 699 A.H.

  • In 699 A.H., Mahmud Ghazan Khan invaded Syria with 90,000 troops, defeating Egyptian forces at Hims and taking Damascus. A subsequent Egyptian counter-invasion led to the capture of Mongol commander Taitaq. Further Syrian campaigns were abandoned when the Golden Horde claimed Persia and Khurasan.

  • Mahmud Ghazan Khan died in 703 A.H. His brother Sultan Muhammad Khudabanda Oljeitu succeeded him in Dhul Hijjah 703 A.H., enforcing Islamic law across an empire spanning Russia, Khwarizm, Belgrade, Rome, Syria, Karakorum, Sind, and Iraq. Oljeitu founded Sultania as his capital and died on Eid-ul-Fitr night, 716 A.H., after ruling 13 years.

  • Abu Sayeed Bahadur Khan succeeded his father Oljeitu at age 14, appointing Commander Chaupan as Prime Minister. Conflict arose when Abu Sayeed demanded that Chaupan's son, Hasan Jalair, divorce his wife Baghdad Khatun so the king could marry her. Chaupan revolted and was killed; Hasan Jalair divorced Baghdad Khatun, allowing Abu Sayeed to marry her. Abu Sayeed died childless of illness at Shirvan on Rabia al-Awwal 13, 736 A.H., while marching against Uzbek Khan.

  • Arpa Khan was enthroned in 736 A.H. but was assassinated after executing members of Hulagu's lineage. Amir Ali enthroned Musa Khan (grandson of Baydu). Amir Hasan (Governor of Rome) killed Amir Ali, and Musa Khan was replaced by Sultan Muhammad Khan. By 744 A.H., the direct descendants of Hulagu Khan ceased ruling.

• Progeny of Juchi Khan (The Golden Horde and Uzbeks):

  • Juchi Khan (eldest son of Genghis Khan) settled in the Kipchak Khanate. Upon his early death, Genghis Khan assigned the territory to Juchi's eldest son, Batu Khan.

  • Batu Khan conquered Russia, Moscow, Poland, and Hungary (founding the city of Sarai near modern Volgograd) before dying in 654 A.H. He was succeeded by his brother Berke Khan, who openly embraced Islam.

  • Subsequent rulers included Mungku Temur Khan, Tugtai Khan (who defeated Tugai Khan and disputed Azerbaijan with Ghazan Khan), Tughril Khan, and Uzbek Khan (founder of the Uzbek tribe, who raided Persia in 718 A.H. and 735 A.H.).

  • Later Uzbek rulers included Jani Beg Khan, Bairwi Khan, Shadi Khan (ruled Tabriz in 809 A.H.), Urs Khan, Temur Malik Khan, Tugtamish Khan (defeated by Amir Temur), and Faulad Khan (conquered Turkistan in 815 A.H.).

  • Burraq Khan Uzbek seized Turkistan with help from Ulagh Beg Temuri, but later defeated Ulagh Beg; Mirza Shahrukh Khan intervened, leading to the deaths of Sultan Mahmud Khan and Burraq Khan.

  • In 855 A.H., Sultan Abul Khair Khan and Badaq Khan captured Samarkand. Abul Fath Muhammad Khan (Shebani Khan Uzbek) dislodged Babar from Turkistan and Farghona before dying in battle against Ismail Safwi.

  • Abdullah Khan Uzbek (son of Iskander Khan, son of Jani Beg) defeated the Persians, corresponded with Emperor Akbar of India, and died in 1006 A.H. His son Abdul Momin Khan was killed by his uncle Rustam Sultan, fragmenting the kingdom. Wali Muhammad Khan took Turkistan, assigning Mawaraunnahr to Imam Quli Khan and Badakhshan to Nazar Muhammad Khan, who later ousted Wali Muhammad.

• Offspring of Chogatai Khan:

  • Genghis Khan assigned Turkistan, Khurasan, Ghazni, and the Indus region to Chogatai Khan, with Commander Qarachar Birlas as Commander-in-Chief. Chogatai Khan died in 640 A.H.

  • Succession moved from Qarabalaku Khan to Maisu Mungku Khan, back to Qarabalaku, then to his wife Warghana Khatun, Alghu Khan, and Mubarak Shah Chogatai.

  • Sultan Ghayasuddin Muhammad Buraq Khan clashed with Abagha Khan in Khurasan. Turma Shirin Khan attacked Qandahar, fought Amir Hasan Saldoz near Ghazni in 716 A.H., and invaded India. Succeeded by Faulad Khan (died 735 A.H.) and Aghlan.

  • Khidr Khawaja Khan fought Amir Temur, eventually making peace by marrying his daughter Khanam Khan to Temur. Subsequent rulers included Muhammad Khan, Jahan Aghlan, and Sher Muhammad Khan (defeated by Ulagh Temuri).

  • Yunus Khan's sons, Mahmud Khan and Ahmad Ulja Khan, assisted Babar against Shebani Khan Uzbek; both were captured, released, and subsequently committed suicide out of shame, ending the Chogatai dynasty. Mansur Khan held nominal rule in Mongolia.

History of Persian Dynasties

• Saffarid Dynasty:

  • Founded by Yaqub bin Laith, named "saffar" due to his family's origin as brass vessel makers. Known for soldierly simplicity, generosity, and firmness, he built an independent realm that the Abbasid Caliphate could not subdue.

  • His brother Amr bin Laith succeeded him, expanding territory but lacking Yaqub's strict soldierly discipline. Ismail Samani (Governor of Mawaraunnahr) confronted Amr's 70,000 cavalry with 20,000 horsemen; Amr's horse carried him into enemy lines where he was captured and sent to Baghdad.

  • Anecdote on Fortune: On the morning of his capture, Amr's cook complained that 300 camels were insufficient to carry the kitchen equipment. That evening in prison, a dog carried off the single pot containing Amr's meager meal of water and ground cereal, prompting Amr to remark how a single dog was now carrying his entire kitchen.

  • Descendants held Sistan as local rulers. Khalaf (Yaqub's maternal grandson) killed his own insurgent son; citizens appealed to Mahmud Ghaznavi, who invaded Sistan. Khalaf submitted, rubbing his beard on Mahmud's feet and addressing him as "Sultan"—a title Mahmud adopted. Khalaf was taken to Ghazni, where he died 4 years later.

• Samanid Dynasty:

  • Asad bin Saman (descendant of Behram Chaubin) presented his four sons to Caliph Mamun Rasheed Abbasi at Merv. Ismail (grandson of Asad) established an independent state after capturing Amr bin Laith, ruling Mawaraunnahr and Khurasan for 7–8 years under credentials from Caliph Mu'atazid.

  • Abu Nazir Ahmad succeeded Ismail but was assassinated by his slaves after 6 years.

  • Nasr bin Ahmad succeeded at age 18, ruling capably for 30 years from Bukhara.

  • Nuh bin Nasr ruled 13 years (died 343 A.H.), succeeded by Abdul Malik bin Nuh, who died from a fall during a polo match.

  • Mansur bin Nuh married the daughter of Ruknuddaula Dailmi; his Minister, Abu Ali bin Muhammad, had Tabari's history translated into Persian. Ruled 15 years.

  • Abul Qasim Nuh II faced court revolts; detractors invited Bughra Khan of Mongolia, who seized Bukhara. After Bughra Khan's death, Nuh II sought help from Sebuktigin (founder of the Ghaznavid Dynasty). Sebuktigin and his son Mahmud defeated the insurgents near Herat; Mahmud was granted the title Saifuddaulah. Nuh II ruled 22 turbulent years.

  • Mansur II succeeded Nuh II, was blinded by court commanders, and replaced by his brother Abdul Malik II bin Nuh II. Elaj Khan (ruler of Kashgar) seized Khwarizm and captured Bukhara, arresting Abdul Malik II. His brother Muntasir escaped but was killed by pirates, ending the Samanid Dynasty. The Delmid Dynasty ruled concurrently over Persia, Iraq, and Azerbaijan.

• Ghaznavid Dynasty:

  • Alaptagin (Samanid Governor of Khurasan) established an independent state at Ghazni in 350 A.H. His son Ishaq Ghaznawi was succeeded in 367 A.H. by Sebuktigin, his commander-in-chief and son-in-law.

  • Sebuktigin defeated Raja Jaipal Singh of Punjab twice—first forcing a tribute promise, and second routing Jaipal's 300,000-strong army with a small force. Sebuktigin expanded his realm until his death in 387 A.H.

  • Mahmud bin Sebuktigin deposed his brother Ismail in 387 A.H. Born on Muharram 9, 361 A.H., Caliph Qadir Billah granted him the titles Yaminuddaulah and Aminul Millat. Mahmud declared sovereignty in 389 A.H., removing the Samanid ruler's name from the khutbah. Firdausi composed the Shahnameh during his reign.

  • Mahmud defeated Elej Khan, annexed Bukhara, defeated Tugha Khan (son of Altu Khan), and expanded rule from the Sutlej River to the Caspian Sea and from Mawaraunnahr to Baluchistan and Iraq. He died at age 60.

  • Mahmud divided his empire: elder son Mas'ud received Khwarizm, Iraq, Persia, and Isfahan; younger son Muhammad received Mawaraunnahr, Khurasan, Ghazni, and Punjab. Mas'ud captured Ghazni and blinded Muhammad. Mas'ud heavily recruited Hindu regiments, appointing Tilak (a barber's son) as Commander-in-Chief with the title Maharaja. After a defeat in Makran caused by the Hindu regiment's flight, Mas'ud attempted to move his seat to Lahore, but his Hindu troops betrayed and plundered him at the Indus River.

  • Muslim troops restored the blinded Muhammad. Muhammad's son Ahmad assassinated Mas'ud at Kiri Fort. Mas'ud's son Maudud defeated Muhammad, executed him and his family, and took the throne in 435 A.H. (died 440 A.H.).

  • Subsequent rulers included Ali, Abdur Rashid (killed by Tughril), Farkhzad (acceded 444 A.H., fought Alp Arsalan Seljuk), and Ibrahim bin Mas'ud (acceded 450 A.H., ruled 42–43 years, made peace with Seljuks, campaigned in India, died 493 A.H.).

  • Mas'ud bin Ibrahim ruled 16 years (died 509 A.H.), succeeded by Arsalan (ruled 3 years). Sultan Sanjar Seljuk conquered Ghazni, placing Behram bin Mas'ud on the throne (ruled 35 years; Kalila wa Dimna and Khamsa Nizami written in his reign). Behram was ousted by the Ghourids and fled to Lahore, where he died in 547 A.H. His son Khusrau Shah ruled Lahore 8 years, followed by Malik bin Khusrau in 555 A.H., who was captured when the Ghourids annexed Punjab, ending the dynasty.

• Seljuk Dynasty:

  • Originates from Waqaq (Temur Taligh) and his son Seljuk, who claimed descent from Afrasiyab in the 34th generation. Seljuk embraced Islam in Samarkand/Bukhara via the Governor of Jund, refusing to pay tribute to King Paigu of Turkistan. Sided with Nuh II Samani against Elek Khan. Seljuk's son Mika'il was killed, leaving sons Israel, Yunus, Yanal, and Musa, and grandson Chager Beg.

  • Sultan Mahmud Ghaznawi met Israel bin Seljuk. When asked how many troops he could supply, Israel placed an arrow down, stating it would summon 100,000 men, and a bow, stating it would summon 200,000 more. Mahmud confined Israel in Kalinger Fort for 7 years as a precaution. Tughril Beg and Chagher Beg took leadership.

  • Sultan Mas'ud released Israel. Chagher Beg seized Merv, Herat, and Khwarizm; Tughril Beg occupied Nishapur and set his capital at Rayy. They ended Delmid rule in Baghdad in 447 A.H., where Tughril Beg was named Prime Minister to the Caliph. Chagher Beg died in 451 A.H.; Tughril Beg died childless in 455 A.H. at age 70.

  • Alp Arsalan bin Chagher Beg succeeded Tughril Beg, ruling 9 years until his death in 465 A.H. With 12,000 cavalry, he defeated a Roman/Christian army of 300,000, capturing Romanus IV Diogenes.

  • Malik Shah Seljuk succeeded Alp Arsalan, killed his rebellious uncle Qawurd, annexed Syria and Egypt, and died in 484 A.H. Decline followed under Barkeyaraq and Muhammad bin Shah (acceded 496 A.H.).

  • Sultan Sanjar bin Malik Shah (acceded 509 A.H., titled Sultanus'salatin) held power until captured by Oguz Turks near Balkh for 4 years. Anustegin's descendants founded the Khwarizm Shahiya dynasty. Sanjar's nephew Mahmud Khan took Nishapur in 550 A.H. before Ghourids and Khwarizm Shahs divided Seljuk lands.

  • Kermanid Seljuks: Founded by Qawurd (brother of Alp Arsalan, killed 465 A.H.). Capital was Hamadan. Successive rulers: Shah Kerman (12 years), Turan Shah (13 years), Iran Shah (42 years), Mughithuddin (14 years), Mohiuddin Tughril Shah (12 years), Behram Shah, Arsalan Shah, Turan Shah, and Muhammad Shah.

  • Seljuks of Rome: Founded in Asia Minor by Sulaiman Qatlamish bin Israel bin Seljuk with Konya as capital; produced 14 sovereign rulers continuously fighting the Eastern Roman Empire until the end of the 7th century A.H.

• Khwarizm Shah Dynasty:

  • Founded by Qutbuddin bin Anustegin, appointed Governor of Khwarizm by Sultan Sanjar Seljuk. Succeeded by his son Atsaz Khwarizm Shah (died ~540 A.H.) and grandson Arsalan Shah (acceded 557 A.H.).

  • Ala ad-Din Tekish defeated his brother Arsalan Shah, assassinated Tughril III Seljuk, and annexed Khurasan and Iraq. Scholars of his era included Ismail bin Hasan (Dhakirah-e-Khwarizm) and the poet Khakani.

  • Muhammad bin Tekish Khwarizm Shah acceded in 590 A.H., ruling 21 years. Expanded rule to Ghour, Ghazni, Persia, and Azerbaijan. When Caliph Nasir of Baghdad resisted him, Muhammad marched to replace him with Sayed Ala al Mulk Tirmidhi; heavy snowfalls forced his army back. Genghis Khan subsequently invaded, and Muhammad died destitute on an island without a burial shroud.

  • Jalaluddin Khwarizm Shah (son of Muhammad bin Tekish) fought Genghis Khan at the Indus River, escaped to India, returned through Sind, destroyed Ismaili strongholds at Alamut, and fought Romans and Mongols before dying obscurely.

• Ghourid Dynasty:

  • Based in Ghour (west-central Afghanistan). Qutbuddin, the local governor under Ghaznavid rule, was killed in a dispute with Sultan Behram Ghaznawi. His brother Saifuddin took Ghazni and tortured Behram, but Behram returned and executed Saifuddin.

  • Alauddin (third brother) invaded Ghazni in 547 A.H. to avenge his brothers, burning the city for a week, demolishing Ghaznavid tombs, and mixing victims' blood with mortar for city walls—earning the epithet "Jahan Soz" (burner of the world). Sultan Sanjar Seljuk briefly imprisoned Alauddin before restoring him to Ghour.

  • Saifuddin II succeeded Alauddin but was killed by a commander during a campaign against Oguz Turks.

  • Co-rulers Ghayas ud-Din and Shahab ud-Din Ghouri expanded the realm. Shahab ud-Din captured Lahore in 582 A.H., ending Ghaznavid rule by arresting Khusrau Malik. He defeated Prithivi Raj, establishing his slave Qutbuddin Aybak over Indian territories. Ghayas ud-Din died in 599 A.H.; Shahab ud-Din was assassinated in 602 A.H. by Fidais or Kakhars. Mahmud Ghouri succeeded at Firozkoh (assassinated 607 A.H.), and his son Bahauddin was captured by Khwarizm Shah.

• Minor Persian Dynasties:

  • Atabeks of Shiraz (Salghurids): Founded by Muzaffaruddin Sangar bin Maudud Salghari (died 556 A.H.). Succeeded by Muzaffaruddin (died 571 A.H.), his son (ruled 20 years), Atabek S'ad bin Zangi (died 622 A.H.; poet Sheikh Muslehuddin Shirazi adopted the pen name "S'adi" after him), Atabek bin S'ad Zangi (submitted to Hulagu Khan), and Atabek Muhammad (ruled until 663 A.H.).

  • Sistan Kings (Nimroz): Founded by Abul Fazl Tajuddin under Sanjar Seljuk. Succeeded by Shamsuddin (assassinated), Tajuddin Herb bin Izzul Malik (ruled 6 years), Yaminuddin Behram Shah (killed by Ismailis), Nusratuddin (killed by brother Ruknuddin), Ruknuddin (killed by Mongols), and Shahabuddin Muhammad (executed by Mongols).

  • Muluk Dynasty of Karat (Herat): Founded by Izzuddin Umar Karat (Minister to Ghayas ud-Din Ghouri). Succeeded by Ruknuddin (acceded 643 A.H.), Shamsuddin Karat, Ruknuddin ("Shamsuddin Kahin"), Fakhruddin, Ghayathuddin, Shamsuddin (acceded 729 A.H.), Malik Hafiz, Muizzuddin Husain (ruled 721–771 A.H.), and Ghayathuddin Babar Ali (who submitted to Amir Temur and married his daughter).

  • Atabeks of Azerbaijan (Eldeguzids): Founded by Shamsud Din Eldeguz (Turkic freedman married to Tughril II's widow). Succeeded by Muhammad Ata Beg (guardian to Tughril III, ruled 13 years), Qazl Arsalan (assassinated Tughril III), Ata Beg Abu Bakr (defeated brother Qatlagh Khan), and Ata Beg Muzaffar (ruled 15 years, conquered by Jalaluddin Khwarizm Shah).

  • Alamut Ismaili Dynasty: Founded by Hasan bin Sabbah upon capturing Alamut and Qazwin forts. Maintained extreme personal austerity (once killing both his sons with single slaps for disobedience). Succeeded by Kiyabuzurg, Muhammad, Hasan bin Muhammad (acceded 561 A.H.), Alauddin Muhammad (whose assassins threatened Imam Fakhruddin Razi at Rayy and killed Shahabuddin Ghouri in 602 A.H.), Jalaluddin Hasan (the "neo-Muslim" convert recognized by Caliph Nasir), Alauddin (acceded at age 9), and Ruknuddin Khurshah (surrendered to Hulagu Khan in 653 A.H., leading to the absolute destruction of their fortresses).

Islamic Dynasties of Egypt and Syria

• Syrian Atabek Rule (Zangids):

  • Founded in 521 A.H. by Atabek Imaduddin Zangi (died 544 A.H.). Left three sons: Nuruddin Zangi, Saifuddin Zangi, and Qutbuddin Zangi, who established regional seats with Nuruddin recognized as paramount ruler.

  • Nuruddin Zangi actively countered Crusader states. When Azid (the last Fatimid/Ubaidi ruler of Egypt) sought aid against Crusader incursions, Nuruddin dispatched his general Sherkoh and nephew Salahuddin Ayyubi to Cairo.

  • Following Azid's death, Egypt came under Salahuddin's control. Nuruddin died shortly after; his son Malik Saleh took the throne in Damascus, while Saifuddin bin Qutbuddin held Mosul.

• Ayyubid Dynasty:

  • Najmuddin Ayyub (a Kurd) served as commander under Imaduddin Zangi. Nuruddin Zangi appointed Najmuddin as garrison commander of Damascus, his brother Sherkoh as Commander-in-Chief, and his nephew Salahuddin as assistant.

  • Upon Nuruddin's death, Salahuddin brought Syria, Yemen, and Hijaz under his authority, establishing Malik Saleh on the throne of Damascus.

  • Liberation of Bait al-Maqdis: In 583 A.H., Salahuddin captured the Crusader King of Jerusalem in battle, captured Aakka, and liberated Bait al-Maqdis in 588 A.H. after 98 years of Crusader rule (490–588 A.H.). In contrast to the Crusader takeover, no civilian blood was shed during the Muslim entry.

  • Third Crusade: Emperor Phillip of France, King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, and Emperor Frederick of Germany launched a 4-year campaign to retake Jerusalem. Salahuddin repulsed their combined armies, securing a peace treaty allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims access to holy sites. Salahuddin died in 589 A.H.

  • Succession: Succeeded by his son Uthman (Malik al-Aziz, ruled 6 years), Malik Mansur (acceded 595 A.H., deposed after 1 year), Malik Adil (brother of Salahuddin, died 615 A.H.), Malik Kamil (died 635 A.H.), Malik Adil Abu Bakr (deposed after 2 years), Malik Saleh bin Malik (ruled 10 years, martyred fighting Crusaders), Malik Mu'azzam Turan Shah (ruled a few months in 647 A.H.), Queen Shajratud'dur (648 A.H.), and Malik Ashraf (deposed 652 A.H. by Mamluk commanders).

• Mamluk Dynasty of Egypt (Category I - Bahri Mamluks):

  • Formed when Turkish and Armenian military slaves seized administrative power, electing Malik Mu'iz Azizuddin Aybak (husband of Shajratud'dur; assassinated 655 A.H.).

  • Succeeded by Mansur (abdicated after 2 years), Malik Muzaffar (ruled 11 months; defeated Hulagu Khan's army invading Egypt), Malik al-Zahir Ruknuddin (assassinated Muzaffar in 658 A.H., ruled 17 years), Malik Sayed Nasiruddin (acceded 676 A.H., deposed after 1 year), and Malik Adil Badruddin (deposed after 4 months). Total period: 26 years (ended 678 A.H.). Key features included an elective council system for choosing rulers and total military success against Mongol expansion.

• Mamluk Dynasty of Egypt (Category II - Qulauniyah Dynasty):

  • Founded by Abul Ma'ani Malik Mansur Qala'un (ruled 11 years). Succeeded by Malik Ashraf Salahuddin Khalil (ruled 44 years, died 737 A.H.), Malik Adil Katbagha Mansuri (ruled under 1 month), Mansur Hosamuddin (assassinated after 2 years), Malik Muzaffar Ruknuddin (ruled 1 year), Malik Mansur Abu Bakr (741 A.H., exiled), Malik Ashraf (exiled after 8 months), Malik Nasir Ahmad (assassinated 745 A.H.), Abul Fida Malik Saleh Ismail (ruled 1 year), Malik Kamil Sh'abani (acceded 746 A.H., deposed after a few months), Malik Muzaffar Hajji (acceded 747 A.H., assassinated within 1 year), Nasir Hasan (acceded 748 A.H., assassinated after 14 years), Malik Saleh (ruled 762–765 A.H.), Malik Mansur bin Hajji (ruled 2 years), Malik Ashraf Sh'abani (assassinated after 11 years), Malik Mansur Ali (acceded 778 A.H., ruled 5 years), and Saleh Hajji (acceded 783 A.H., abdicated after 8–9 years). Dynasty lasted 114 years.

• Mamluk Dynasty of Egypt (Category III - Cherkesy/Circassian Dynasty):

  • Established by Malik Tahir Barquq of the Circassian tribe (ruled 792–801 A.H.). Succeeded by Malik Nasir (ruled 4 years; Amir Temur reduced Egypt to tributary status for 5 years). Malik Nasir established four distinct prayer carpets for the Hanafi, Shafe'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools at the Ka'bah.

  • Subsequent rulers: Malik Mansur, Abu Nasser Sheikh, Malik Muzaffar Ahmad, Malik al-Zahir Abul Fath, Malik Saleh Muhammad (acceded 822 A.H., abdicated after 4 months), Malik Ashraf Abu Nasir (ruled until 841 A.H.), Abul Mahasin Abdul Aziz (deposed after 3 months), Malik Abu Sayeed / Malik Al-Zahir (ruled 15 years), Malik Mansur Uthman (deposed 857 A.H.), Malik Ashraf Abu Nasser (ruled until 885 A.H.), Malik Muayyed (deposed after a few days), Malik Zahir Abu Sayeed Khushqadam (ruled 865–892 A.H.), Malik Zahir Abu Sayeed Malyas (exiled after a few months), Malik Zahir Abu Sayeed Tamrigha (imprisoned after 2 months), Malik Ashraf Abu Nasir (ruled until 902 A.H.), Malik Abu al-Sadat (assassinated after 2.5 years), Malik Ashraf Qalduh (disappeared after 11 days), Malik Zahir Abu Sayeed Qalduh (ruled until 906 A.H.), Malik Hanbalat (exiled within 1 year), Malik Adil (acceded 907 A.H., killed after 4.5 months), and Malik Ashraf Abu Nasser Qalduh (ruled 15 years).

  • Ottoman Sultan Salim I invaded Egypt in 922 A.H., defeated Malik Ashraf Tuman, annexed Egypt, and ended both the Circassian Mamluk Dynasty (which lasted 130 years) and the nominal shadow Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo.

• Chronological List of Shadow Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo (659–922 A.H.):

• Caliph Mustamsik Billah surrendered the scepter, relics, and rights of the Caliphate to Sultan Salim I Uthmani in 922 A.H., who accompanied him to Constantinople.

Origins and Emergence of the Ottoman Empire

• Background and Migrations of the Oguz Turks:

  • Oguz and Ghazan Turkic tribes migrated across Khorasan, Iran, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. During the Mongol invasions of Khorasan, an Oguz clan led by Sulaiman Khan moved into Armenia.

  • In 621 A.H., Genghis Khan dispatched an army against Alauddin Kaiqbad Seljuk, the ruler of Konya. Sulaiman Khan dispatched his son Artughril with 444 cavaliers as a vanguard to assist the Konya Seljuks.

  • The Intervention: Artughril arrived on the battlefield near Angorah (Ankara) as Seljuk forces were buckling under a Mongol assault. Without knowing the identities of the combatants, Artughril joined the weaker, losing side, repulsing the Mongols completely. Alauddin Kaiqbad embraced Artughril, appointed Sulaiman Khan as Commander-in-Chief, and granted Artughril an estate bordering Roman territories near Ankara.

  • Sulaiman Khan drowned while crossing the Euphrates River. Artughril continued expanding his territory into borderland Christian domains. Alauddin Kaiqbad died in 634 A.H. and was succeeded by Ghayathuddin Kaikhusro, who became a tributary to the Mongols.

• Osman I (Osman Gazi) (699–727 A.H.):

  • Osman Gazi was born to Artughril in 657 A.H. (the year following the fall of Baghdad). Upon Artughril's death in 687 A.H. at age 30, Osman took command. Ghayathuddin Kaikhusro married his daughter to Osman, appointed him Commander-in-Chief and Prime Minister, and authorized him to give the Friday khutbah.

  • After Ghayathuddin Kaikhusro was killed in a Mongol uprising, the Konya Seljuk Dynasty (founded in 470 A.H.) ended in 699 A.H., and Osman Gazi was chosen as sovereign, founding the Ottoman Empire.

  • When his uncle (Artughril's brother) advocated maintaining peaceful, tributary relations with local Christian lords to avoid Mongol conflicts, Osman shot and killed his uncle on the spot with an arrow to eliminate defeatist council.

  • Osman seized Eskisehir (ancient Dorylaeum) and made it his capital. He defeated Roman field armies while his son Orkhan repulsed eastern Mongol incursions. Orkhan captured Bursa; as Osman lay dying in Eskisehir, he requested burial in Bursa, where he died in 727 A.H. at age 69 after a 27-year reign.

  • Osman advised Orkhan to enforce the Shari'ah, maintain justice, and make Bursa the capital. Upon his death, his total personal estate consisted solely of his armor, sword, girdle, and standard. The Crescent flag of the Konya Seljuks was retained as the national symbol.

• Orkhan (727–761 A.H.) and Administrative Reforms:

  • Orkhan succeeded Osman Gazi. His elder brother Alauddin voluntarily relinquished claims to the throne, accepting the post of Prime Minister to organize state administration.

  • Establishment of the Janissaries (Yeni Ceri): To prevent regional feudal lords from amassing private armies and threatening central rule, Prime Minister Alauddin established a standing infantry corps. Young male Christian captives and subjects were recruited, converted to Islam, given military and spiritual training, and raised as royal bodyguards directly loyal to the Sultan. A religious scholar blessed the first batch, invoking divine protection.

  • Administrative Institutions: Alauddin structured the army into regular units (squads of 100, 500, and 1,000), created distinct infantry and cavalry branches, instituted uniform ranks, built law courts, organized police and municipal functions, and constructed madrasas, hospitals, inns, roads, and bridges across Asia Minor.

  • European Footprint: In 748 A.H., Emperor Cantacuzenus of Constantinople married his daughter Theodora to the 60-year-old Orkhan to secure an alliance. During a conflict between Venice and Genoa, Orkhan backed Genoa. Orkhan's son, Sulaiman Orkhan, crossed the Hellespont with 40 men in a Genoese boat and seized Gallipoli Fort (Gelibolu). An earthquake collapsed Gallipoli's city walls shortly after, allowing commanders Azdi Beg and Ghazi Fazil to occupy and repair the fortress, establishing a permanent Ottoman foothold in Europe.

  • Sulaiman Orkhan died in 759 A.H. from a fall from his horse while hunting. Heartbroken, Orkhan died in 761 A.H. at age 75 after ruling 38 years. Sulaiman was buried at the Danube pass to signal permanent European settlement.

• Murad I (761–792 A.H.) and European Conquests:

  • Murad I succeeded his father at age 40. He conquered Adrianople in 763 A.H., renamed it Edirne, and transferred the Ottoman capital there from Bursa.

  • In 765 A.H., general Lala Shahin led 20,000 Ottoman troops in repulsing a combined Christian army two stages from Adrianople.

  • In 778 A.H., a joint crusade composed of Serbians, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Bosnians, Poles, and Byzantine forces was routed by Murad's army (less than one-fourth the enemy's size). The King of Serbia paid annual silver tribute and provided 1,000 horsemen; the ruler of Bulgaria gave his daughter in marriage; Emperor Palaeologus presented three daughters (one married to Murad, two to his sons).

  • Prince Sawji's Revolt: Andronecus (son of Emperor Palaeologus) enticed Murad's son Sawji to launch a joint rebellion while Murad was campaigning in Asia Minor. Murad returned, broke the insurgent army, and had Sawji blinded and executed. Palaeologus blinded Andronecus with acid to satisfy Murad.

  • In 789 A.H., Murad's son Bayazid led a rapid cavalry attack against Karamanid insurgents near Konya, earning the epithet Yaldaram (Yil'diram, meaning "lightning").

  • In 791 A.H., 20,000 Ottoman troops were wiped out in Romiliya by a Christian alliance. Commander Ali Pasha subdued Bulgaria in 792 A.H.

  • Battle of Kosovo (792 A.H.): A massive Christian coalition (Serbians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Hungarians, Poles, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Bosnians) commanded by King Lazers of Serbia arrayed against Murad I at Kosovo. Bayazid commanded the right wing, Prince Yaqub the left wing, and Murad the center. Murad prayed all night for rain to settle a heavy dirt storm; a downpour stabilized the ground. Ottoman forces routed the allied army by midday. As Murad inspected the field, Milosh Kobilovic, a Serbian commander pretending to convert and disclose military secrets, knelt at Murad's feet and fatally stabbed him with a hidden dagger. Murad ordered the execution of the captured King Lazers before succumbing to his wound. He was buried in Bursa after a 32-year reign.

The Expansion and Golden Era of the Ottoman Empire

• Sultan Bayazid I Yaldaram (792–804 A.H.):

  • Bayazid I annexed territory from Bosnia to the Danube and secured credentials from Abbasid Caliph Mustasim Billah of Egypt in 795 A.H., becoming the first Ottoman monarch officially granted the title of "Sultan."

  • Battle of Nicopolis (799 A.H.): A European Crusade mobilized under King Sajmund of Hungary, Duke John of Burgundy, French forces under James, Philip, and Henry, along with troops from Germany, Pomerania, Austria, Italy, Walachia, and Jerusalem. Bayazid deployed 40,000 troops behind an embankment, sending light cavalry to lure the French heavy knights over the ridge into a prepared envelopment. Over 150,000 Crusader soldiers were killed; Sajmund fled, and 25 noble commanders (including the Duke of Burgundy) were captured. Bayazid transported them to Bursa, released them without requiring anti-Ottoman pledges, and challenged them to return with larger armies.

  • In 800 A.H., Bayazid conquered Athens, relocating 30,000 Greeks to Asia Minor.

• Conflict with Amir Temur (Tamerlane) and the Battle of Ankara:

  • Emperor Constantine XII of Constantinople sent letters appealing to Amir Temur in Samarkand to attack Bayazid, citing Bayazid's granting of asylum to anti-Temur rebels Qara Yusuf Turkman and Sultan Ahmad Jalair. Temur received the message while at Haridawar on the Ganges River in India and marched west.

  • Temur besieged Sivas, garrisoned by Bayazid's son Artughril. Temur's engineers sapped the walls by burning wooden supports in excavated trenches. Upon surrender, Temur bound the 4,000 defenders, cast them into deep trenches, planks, and earth, burying them alive.

  • Inflamed by anger, Bayazid force-marched his army across Asia Minor to confront Temur at Ankara. Out of 400,000 troops, only 120,000 exhausted soldiers arrived; 5,000 died of thirst on the march because Temur had diverted local streams and fortified the surrounding positions.

  • Battle of Ankara (Dhul Hijjah 19, 804 A.H. / July 20, 1402 A.C.):

  • Temur's Command: Right wing under Prince Mirza Shah Rukh (with Khalil Sultan, Sulaiman Shah, Rustam Birlas, Sonjak Bahadur, Musa, Tawi Bugha, Amir Yadgar; reinforced by Mirza Sultan Husain). Left wing under Prince Miran Shah (with Nuruddin Jalair, Barmazag Birlas, Ali Fanjain, Mubash'shere, Sultan Sanjar Birlas, Umar ibn Taban; reinforced by Abu Bakr Amir Jahan Birlas and Pir Ali Salduz). Center right led by Tash Timur and Aghlan Uzbek; center left led by Tawak'kal Qara'qara and Ali Mahmud. Temur held 40 reserve squads and a line of armored war elephants.

  • Bayazid's Command: Left wing under Sulaiman Chalpi; right wing under his Christian brother-in-law; center led by Bayazid with his sons Musa, Isa, and Mustafa in reserve.

  • Outcome: During the engagement, Tatar/Mongol contingents within the Ottoman ranks deserted to Temur's lines. The Christian wing broke. Bayazid fought on an elevated plateau with his bodyguards until his horse fell. Bayazid was captured alive and kept in an iron cage as a prisoner during Temur's marches. Bayazid died in captivity 8 months later; Temur released his body to his son Musa for burial in Bursa.

• The Ottoman Interregnum (804–816 A.H.):

  • Civil war erupted among Bayazid's sons: Sulaiman held Edirne/Europe; Isa held Bursa; Muhammad ruled eastern Asia Minor; Musa was released with his father's body; Qasim remained dependent.

  • Muhammad defeated Isa, who fled to Sulaiman. Musa and Muhammad allied against Sulaiman. Musa crossed to Europe, defeated Sulaiman (assassinated in 813 A.H.), and took Edirne.

  • Musa besieged Constantinople. Emperor Constantine appealed to Muhammad for military aid. Muhammad marched to Europe, allied with King Stephen of Serbia, and defeated Musa in battle. Musa was killed, and Muhammad became sole ruler in 816 A.H., blinding his brother Qasim and his nephew (Sulaiman's son) to prevent further dynastic strife.

• Sultan Muhammad I (816–825 A.H.):

  • Re-established central authority through diplomacy and military force, earning the title "The Noah of the Ottoman Dynasty." He established peaceful relations with Constantinople, Serbia, Venice, Walachia, Albania, and Bosnia.

  • Suppressed regional revolts in Smyrna (Izmir) and Fermania. Crushed a pseudo-religious movement led by Qadi Badruddin and an apostate scholar named Mustafa.

  • Defeated an impostor named Mustafa who claimed to be Bayazid's lost son from the Battle of Ankara; the pretender fled to Constantinople, where the Emperor held him in exchange for a annual maintenance fee.

  • Muhammad I established fixed annual monetary grants for the maintenance of the Ka'bah and the poor of Makkah, earning the title "Custodian of the Sanctuaries of Makkah and Madinah" from Abbasid Caliph Mu'tazid Billah in Cairo. Died in 825 A.H. at age 47; his death was kept secret for 40 days until his son Murad II arrived.

• Sultan Murad II (825–855 A.H.):

  • Ascended the throne at age 18. Emperor Constantine released the pretender Mustafa to cause a revolt, but Murad II captured and hanged Mustafa in Edirne.

  • In 826 A.H. (June 1422 A.C.), Murad II besieged Constantinople using heavy catapults, moving towers, and gunpowder mines. The siege was raised when Byzantine agents incited Murad's 15-year-old brother Mustafa to revolt in Asia Minor; Murad captured and executed Mustafa, subsequently forcing Constantinople to pay an annual tribute of 30,000 Ducats.

  • In 842 A.H., Murad II suppressed an uprising in Transylvania, resulting in 70,000 Christian casualties.

  • Hungarian commander John Hani Das (illegitimate son of King Sajmund and Elizabeth Marsi) inflicted a defeat on Ottoman forces in Transylvania, killing General Mazid Beg, his son, and 30,000 troops.

  • Treaty of Szeged: Murad II concluded a 10-year peace treaty, recognizing Serbian independence under George Bernick, assigning Walachia to Hungary, and ransoming prisoner Muhammad Chalpi for 60,000 Ducats. Grieving the death of his eldest son Alauddin, Murad II abdicated in favor of his 12-year-old son, Muhammad II, and retired to a monastic life in Asia Minor.

  • Breach of Treaty and Battle of Warna (849 A.H.): Cardinal Julian and Pope Nicholas V absolved the Hungarian crown of its oath, prompting Hani Das and King Wladyslaw of Hungary to violate the treaty and invade Bulgaria. Ottoman ministers recalled Murad II, who led 40,000 troops to Warna, fixing a copy of the broken treaty to the tip of his lance. Janissary veteran Khawaja Khairi struck down the King of Hungary's horse, severed his head, and raised it on a spear. Cardinal Julian, the papal legate, and leading bishops were killed on the field; Hani Das fled alone. Serbia and Bosnia were annexed into the empire.

  • Murad II retired to seclusion a second time, but returned to the throne in 849 A.H. after the Janissaries mutinied over pay. He defeated Hani Das again in 852 A.H. and died in 855 A.H. after a 30-year reign.

  • The Issue of Sikander Beg (George Chastrait): John Chastrait, King of Albania, sent his four sons as hostages to Edirne; three died of illness. The surviving son, George Chastrait, was converted to Islam, educated in the palace, and given the military rank of Sikander Beg (Lord Sikander). Following his father's death in 836 A.H., Sikander Beg forged imperial orders to assume the governorship of Albania, publicly apostatized to Christianity, massacred local Ottoman garrisons, and waged a guerrilla war from Albania's mountain fortresses. He died in Venice in 872 A.H., after which Albania was fully annexed.

• Sultan Muhammad II, The Conqueror (855 A.H. Onwards):

  • Ascended the throne permanently in 855 A.H. at age 21. During coronation ceremonies, a Janissary commander drowned Murad's 8-month-old infant son (from his Serbian princess wife) in a bath without authorization; Sultan Muhammad II executed the murderer in retaliation.

  • When Emperor Constantine XII threatened to release Ottoman pretender Prince Orkhan unless his maintenance allowance was doubled, Muhammad II halted all payments, terminated treaties, and initiated siege preparations against Constantinople.

  • Secured his northern frontier by signing a 3-year non-aggression pact with John Hani Das of Hungary.

  • Emperor Constantine XII sought to unite the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches under Pope Nicholas V to secure European Crusaders. Reinforcements arrived in Constantinople (population 100,000) from Spain, Castile, Venice, and Genoa.

  • Sultan Muhammad II hired Arban, a Hungarian blacksmith and convert to Islam, to cast massive, long-range bronze siege cannons capable of firing heavy stone shells to breach the walls of Constantinople.