Chapter 10

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

  • Emotional Responses
    • Emotions can change rapidly, particularly in response to unexpected events.
    • Example: Immediate emotions like surprise, fear, anger, and sadness were experienced by many in the aftermath of the April 15, 2013 Boston Marathon bombing.
    • Key Questions: What are emotions? What causes them? Why did some bystanders help while others ran for safety?

INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

  • Definitions of Motivation

    • Motivation: The wants or needs that direct behavior towards a goal.

  • Types of Motivation

    • Intrinsic Motivation:
    • Arises from internal factors.
    • Behaviors are performed for personal satisfaction.
    • Extrinsic Motivation:
    • Arises from external factors.
    • Behaviors are performed to receive something from others.

  • Overjustification Effect

    • Intrinsic motivation can diminish when extrinsic motivation is provided.
    • Example: When a fun activity, such as icing cakes, becomes a job, intrinsic motivation can be lost if an extrinsic reward (like payment) is given.

  • Research Findings

    • Type of Reinforcement:
    • Tangible rewards (monetary) often decrease intrinsic motivation.
    • Intangible rewards (praise) may increase intrinsic motivation.
    • Expectation of Extrinsic Reward:
    • When an extrinsic reward is expected, intrinsic motivation is more likely to decrease.

INSTINCT THEORY OF MOTIVATION

  • William James' Proposal
    • Proposed the instinct theory asserting that behavior is driven by instincts, aiding survival.
    • Example instincts include:
    • Direct maternal protection (a mother protecting her baby).
    • Natural urges (e.g., licking sugar, hunting prey).
    • Criticism of the theory includes neglect of learning's role in shaping behavior.
    • In humans: instinct behaviors may manifest as rooting reflex in infants.

DRIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION

  • Overview of Drive Theory

    • Asserts homeostasis maintenance is crucial for directing behavior.
    • Deviations from homeostasis lead to physiological needs resulting in psychological drive states that motivate behavior.
    • Habit formation: if a behavior successfully reduces a drive, future engagement in that behavior is encouraged.

  • Example: Hunger

    • Hunger and subsequent eating are influenced by complex physiological processes maintaining homeostasis.

AROUSAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION

  • Principle of Arousal

    • Arousal theories propose the existence of an optimal level of arousal for performance.
    • Underarousal can lead to boredom, prompting the search for stimulation.
    • Overarousal can cause stress, leading individuals to engage in behaviors to lower arousal levels.

  • Optimal Level of Arousal

    • Performance is maximized at moderate arousal levels; extremes of under- or overarousal taper off performance.

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law

    • Task performance is optimal within a middle range of arousal:
    • Difficult tasks benefit from lower levels of arousal.
    • Simpler tasks perform better under higher levels of arousal.

SELF-EFFICACY & SOCIAL MOTIVATION

  • Self-Efficacy

    • Definition: The belief in one’s own ability to complete a task.
    • Albert Bandura theorized self-efficacy influences behavior motivation.
    • Motivation is derived from expectations about behavior consequences.
    • Beliefs about abilities shape actions and goal setting.

  • Social Motives

    • Need for Achievement: Drives accomplishment and performance.
    • Need for Affiliation: Encourages positive social interactions.
    • Need for Intimacy: Motivates the pursuit of deep, meaningful relationships.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

  • Abraham Maslow's Proposal
    • Introduced a theory encompassing biological, individual, and social motives.
    • Hierarchical structure: one must satisfy lower-level needs before higher-level ones can be addressed.
    • Example: An individual lacking food, water, and shelter is unlikely to focus on social relationships or external perceptions.

HUNGER & EATING

PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS

  • Regulation of Hunger and Eating

    • Hunger and eating regulated by a complex interplay of signals integrated in the brain.

  • Pre-Meal Signals

    1. Empty Stomach:
    • Stomach contracts, producing hunger pangs and chemical messages prompting brain signals to start eating.
    1. Low Blood Glucose Levels:
    • Pancreas and liver generate signals to induce hunger and initiate feeding.

  • Post-Meal Signals (Satiation)

    1. Increased Blood Glucose:
    • Signals from pancreas and liver indicate fullness and halt hunger and eating.
    1. Food Passage:
    • Satiety signals are sent as food travels through the gastrointestinal tract.
    1. Leptin Release:
    • Fat cells release leptin (satiety hormone) after eating.

METABOLISM & BODY WEIGHT

  • Factors Affecting Body Weight

    • Gene-environment interactions.

  • Calories and Energy Balance

    • Balance between calories consumed and calories burned affects body weight.

  • Metabolic Rate

    • Definition: The amount of energy expended over time.
    • Variability: High metabolic rates facilitate easier calorie burning compared to low rates.

  • Set-Point Theory

    • The theory posits that every individual has a genetically determined ideal body weight (set point) resistant to change.
    • Efforts to significantly alter weight lead to compensatory adaptations in energy intake/expenditure.
    • Observations show that individual weight fluctuates within a narrow margin.
    • It fails to account for social and environmental influences impacting weight.

OBESITY

  • Prevalence

    • Approximately 2/3 of U.S. adults experience overweight issues.

  • BMI Calculation and Classification

    • Body Mass Index (BMI): Calculated using a graph comparing height (y-axis) and weight (x-axis).
    • 25-29.9 BMI: Overweight
    • 30+ BMI: Obese
    • 40+ BMI: Morbidly Obese

  • Environmental Factors

    • Beyond genetics and caloric balance, factors like socioeconomic status and environmental conditions contribute to obesity.
    • Examples: Neighborhood safety affecting physical activity or financial ability to access healthy food options.

  • Health Risks Association

    • Major health risks related to obesity include:
    • Cardiovascular disease
    • Stroke
    • Type 2 diabetes
    • Breast cancer
    • Infertility
    • Arthritis
    • Liver disease
    • Sleep apnea
    • Colon cancer

  • Weight Reduction Strategies

    • Combination of dietary changes and physical activity.
    • Bariatric Surgery: Gastric banding reduces stomach size to limit food intake.

EATING DISORDERS

BULIMIA NERVOSA

  • Characteristics

    • Engaging in binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (e.g., vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise).

  • Health Consequences

    • Risks include:
    • Kidney failure
    • Heart failure
    • Tooth decay

  • Psychological Issues

    • Commonly associated with depression, anxiety, and heightened substance abuse risks.

ANOREXIA NERVOSA

  • Characteristics

    • Sustained body weight below average through starvation or excessive exercise.
    • Distorted body image leads individuals to perceive themselves as overweight despite being underweight.

  • Health Consequences

    • Risks include:
    • Bone loss
    • Heart failure
    • Kidney failure
    • Amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual cycle)
    • Reduced gonadal function
    • Potential death

  • Psychiatric Issues

    • Includes anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and substance abuse.

RISK FACTORS FOR EATING DISORDERS

  • Demographics

    • Caucasian females aged 15-19 in Western societies are the most at-risk group.

  • Contributing Factors

    • Media portrayal of thin ideals.
    • Genetic predisposition.
    • Low self-esteem and other mental illnesses.
    • Stressful life transitions.
    • Experiences like abuse or bullying.
    • Perfectionistic personality traits.
    • Family dynamics and issues.

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS

  • Role of the Hypothalamus

    • The hypothalamus is integral to motivated behaviors, including sexual activities.
    • Lesions in the medial preoptic area can disrupt sexual behavior in male rats without affecting sexual motivation.

  • Human Factors

    • Abnormal hypothalamic function is linked to sexual dysfunction (hypogonadism).
    • Hormones like testosterone influence sexual motivation and conduct.

AMYGDALA AND NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS

  • Sexual Motivation
    • Both regions play roles in motivation for sexual behavior but do not impede the ability to perform these actions.
    • Damage to these areas in rodents leads to decreased sexual motivation intact ability.

KINSEY’S RESEARCH

  • Survey Initiated by Dr. Alfred Kinsey

    • Conducted in the late 1940s due to lack of empirical data surrounding sexual behavior.
    • Findings revealed behaviors previously thought rare were more common.

  • Key Findings:

    • Women exhibit interest and engagement in sexual activities equivalent to men.
    • Both genders participation in masturbation without adverse health effects.
    • Homosexual acts occurred at a notable frequency.

  • Kinsey Scale

    • A tool used to categorize individuals along a spectrum of sexual orientation.

MASTERS AND JOHNSON’S RESEARCH

  • Sexual Response Study

    • Investigated physiological responses during sexual behavior.
    • Measured variables such as blood pressure, respiration rate, and physiological arousal (e.g., vaginal lubrication, penile tumescence).

  • Sexual Response Cycle Phases:

    1. Excitement: Initial arousal (erection, lubrication).
    2. Plateau: Increased blood flow and swelling in genital areas.
    3. Orgasm: Rhythmic contractions leading to ejaculation.
    4. Resolution: Return to a baseline state of arousal.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

  • Definition

    • Emotional and erotic attraction towards others, a stable aspect of identity.
    • 3%-10% of the adult population identifies as homosexual.

  • Determinants

    • Factors defining heterosexual versus homosexual orientations previously thought to include socialization experiences, but current research shows similarities in experiences.
    • Genetic and biological mechanisms have unveiled differences in brain structure/function between heterosexual and homosexual individuals.

GENDER IDENTITY

CONCEPTS

  • Definition

    • Gender identity encompasses one’s perception of being male or female.
    • Typically aligns with biological sex but not always.

  • Gender Dysphoria

    • A diagnosis for individuals whose gender identity does not align with societal assumptions.
    • Must persist for six months and cause significant distress to qualify for diagnosis.

  • Transgender Hormone Therapy

    • Involves hormone usage for aligning physical appearance with gender identity.

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS

  • Chaz Bono

    • Notable transgender male who transitioned from female to male, having public visibility through his former identity as Chastity Bono.

  • Laverne Cox

    • An openly transgender actress advocating for LGBTQ+ issues and the first transgender actor in a regular television role.

EMOTION

EMOTION VS MOOD

  • Mood

    • A prolonged, less intense affective state not necessarily linked to specific experiences.
    • May not be consciously recognized or intentional.

  • Emotion

    • A subjective state with a distinct cause, usually intense and happens in response to specific experiences.
    • Consciously experienced and intentional.

  • Components of Emotion

    • Physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, subjective experiences, influenced by experiences, backgrounds, and cultures.

EMOTIONAL DYNAMICS

  • Example: Toddlers displaying rapid emotional changes, alternating between extreme happiness and sadness.

THEORIES OF EMOTION

JAMES-LANGE THEORY
  • Emotions originate from physiological arousal:
    • Sequence: See snake → physiological change (increased heart rate) → experience fear.
CANNON-BARD THEORY

  • Both physiological arousal and emotional experience happen simultaneously and independently:

    • Sequence: See snake → physiological arousal AND simultaneous fear perception.

  • Empirical Findings

    • Individuals with spinal cord injuries still experience emotions, albeit sometimes with less intensity.
    • Suppression of facial expressions lessens emotional intensity, suggesting that while physiological arousal enhances experience, it is not vital for experiencing emotions.
SCHACHTER-SINGER TWO-FACTOR THEORY
  • Emotions consist of physiological and cognitive factors:
    • Sequence: See snake → physiological arousal and cognitive framing → labels arousal as fear → experience fear.
    • Similar arousal across emotions indicates the significance of cognitive interpretation.
LAZARUS’ COGNITIVE-MEDIATIONAL THEORY
  • Emotions depend on verbal assessment of stimuli.
    • Appraisal occurs prior to labeling emotional response: immediate, unconscious.

THE BIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
  • Components
    • Hypothalamus: Activation of sympathetic nervous system during emotional responses.
    • Thalamus: Sensory relay center with projections to amygdala and cortical regions for processing.
    • Amygdala: Instigates emotional information processing for cortical communication.
    • Hippocampus: Integrates emotional experiences within cognitive frameworks.
AMYGDALA RESEARCH
  • The amygdala is crucial in studying emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.
  • Distinct subnuclei roles:
    • Basolateral Complex:
    • Interconnections with sensory brain areas, essential for classical conditioning and emotional memory.
    • Central Nucleus:
    • Regulates attention and autonomic/endocrine responses linked to emotions.

FACIAL EXPRESSION & EMOTION RECOGNITION

  • Cultural Display Rules

    • Standards defining acceptable expression frequency and types of emotion vary across cultures:
    • Example: U.S. individuals openly express negative emotions, while Japanese individuals may restrict expressions to private settings.

  • Universal Emotion Recognition

    • Despite cultural differences, recognition of basic emotions through facial expressions remains universal across cultures.
SEVEN UNIVERSAL FACIAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION
  • Happiness
  • Surprise
  • Sadness
  • Fright
  • Disgust
  • Contempt
  • Anger

FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS

  • Concept
    • The hypothesis suggests facial expressions influence emotions:
    • Question: Does smiling induce happiness, or does happiness lead to smiling?
    • Evidence: Depressed individuals reported reduced depression after botulinum toxin injections paralyzing frowning muscles.
    • Sequence: Emotional stimuli → facial expression → physiological response → emotional experience.