Political Violence - Study Guide

Political Violence: A Comprehensive Study Guide

I. Key Concepts and Theories

A. Conceptualization of Political Violence

1. Johan Galtung's Typology of Violence: Galtung expands the definition of violence to include avoidable actions that cause human impairment or harm to human life, encompassing physical and structural forms. Violence can manifest as exploitation or genocide, varying in conditions and objects.

2. Defining Political Violence: Political violence is often defined as the actual use of physical force to kill, injure, or harm human beings to achieve political goals. This definition typically includes bullets and bombs but excludes non-physical, psychological forms of 'violence.'

3. Stathis Kalyvas's Typology of Political Violence: Kalyvas categorizes political violence based on the perpetrators and targets involved. His typology is constructed around whether the perpetrator is a state or non-state actor, and whether the target is a state or non-state entity.

B. Classical Theorists and Violence

1. Thomas Hobbes:

• State of Nature: Hobbes posited a pre-political condition where life is a "war of all against all," driven by competition, diffidence, and glory.

• Leviathan: To escape the state of nature, individuals must surrender their rights to a sovereign power capable of maintaining order through the threat of violence. The state provides security, enabling industry and society.

• Violence as Passion: Hobbes attributed violence to human passions rather than inherent evil, viewing humans as naturally competitive and driven by self-preservation.

1. Max Weber:

• Definition of the State: Weber defined the state as an entity that successfully claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.

• Politics and Violence: Weber argued that politics involves striving to share power or influence its distribution. Violence is an intrinsic part of politics, as those seeking power must acknowledge and potentially utilize it.

• Legitimate Domination: Weber introduced the concept of legitimate domination in the modern state, based on belief in the validity of legal statutes and rational rules.

1. Carl Schmitt:

• The Concept of the Political: Schmitt argued that the fundamental distinction in politics is that of "friend" versus "enemy." This distinction is defined by the potential for violence, which is constitutive of the political.

• State and the Political: Unlike Hobbes and Weber, Schmitt believed that the political is prior to the state. The state embodies the political when it identifies the "enemy" and acts accordingly.

• Critique of Liberalism: Schmitt criticized liberalism for failing to recognize the friend/enemy distinction, attempting to transform enemies into competitors or debating adversaries.

• State of Exception: Schmitt believed the sovereign is the one who decides on the exception, meaning they can act outside the bounds of the law in extreme circumstances.

C. Political Ideologies on Violence

1. Marxism on Violence:

• Revolutionary violence is seen as necessary and justifiable for class struggle. Each class uses violence for its own purpose, and it should be viewed as part of a wider political struggle.

1. Neoliberalism on Violence:

• For Friedrich Hayek, neoliberalism represented a way out of political violence, contrasting with planned economies that he believed inevitably lead to coercion.

D. Kalyvas' Typology of Political Violence

1. Two Dimensions: Kalyvas categorizes political violence based on two key dimensions:

• Whether the perpetrator of violence is a state or a non-state actor.

• Whether the target of violence is a state or a non-state entity.

1. Eleven Types of Political Violence: Kalyvas identifies eleven fundamental types of political violence:

• Interstate War

• Civil War

• Insurgency

• Revolution

• State Repression

• Genocide

• Ethnic Cleansing

• Intercommunal Violence

• Coup d'état

• Terrorism

• Organized Crime

1. Connecting Logics: Kalyvas proposes four logics that link these types of violence:

• Hierarchy: Some forms of violence are nested within others or represent different levels of intensity.

• Instrumentality: Violence is used as a tool to achieve another form of violence or political objective.

• Escalation: Violence can escalate from one type to another.

• Substitution: When one type of violence is impossible or too costly, actors may substitute it with another.

E. Key Themes

1. State Monopoly on Violence: The idea, central to Weber, that the state's defining characteristic is its claim to the exclusive right to use force.

2. Legitimacy: The perceived rightfulness of a state's power and authority, often linked to its ability to manage violence.

3. Friend/Enemy Distinction: Schmitt's concept that politics is fundamentally about the distinction between those who belong to the same group (friends) and those who are considered a threat (enemies).

4. Ontology of Violence: The underlying assumptions about the nature and origins of human violence, which influence political theories.

5. Liberalism vs. Anti-Liberalism: Differing approaches to managing violence, with liberalism emphasizing individual rights and limited government, and anti-liberalism prioritizing state power and order.

II. Quiz: Short Answer Questions

1. According to Johan Galtung, what are the different forms that violence can take, and how does his typology broaden the conventional understanding of the term?

2. How did Weber define the state, and what role does violence play in his conception of politics?

3. Explain Carl Schmitt's concept of the "political" and how it differs from Hobbes' and Weber's views on the relationship between the state and politics.

4. What is Kalyvas's typology of political violence designed to address, and what are the two key dimensions he uses to categorize different forms of violence?

5. Describe the difference between genocide and ethnic cleansing, according to Kalyvas.

6. Explain the logic of "escalation" in Kalyvas' framework and provide an example of how it might manifest in real-world political conflict.

7. According to Pearce, how did Hobbes’s view on religion create a ‘crack’ in the Leviathan?

8. How did the Treaty of Westphalia shape the European state system and the understanding of war and peace?

9. What is "absolute enmity" and why does Schmitt view it as dangerous?

10. According to Kalyvas, what distinguishes terrorism from other forms of rebel violence or political assassination?

III. Answer Key: Short Answer Questions

1. Galtung identifies violence as avoidable actions causing human impairment or harm, encompassing physical and structural forms like exploitation and genocide. His typology expands the conventional understanding by including indirect and systemic harm, not just direct physical acts.

2. Weber defines the state as an entity that successfully claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Violence is intrinsic to politics, as those seeking power must acknowledge and potentially utilize it to influence the distribution of power.

3. Schmitt's "political" is based on the "friend/enemy" distinction, where the potential for violence is constitutive, differing from Hobbes and Weber, who see the state as central to enabling or managing politics. Schmitt argues that the political is prior to the state, which embodies it by identifying and acting against enemies.

4. Kalyvas' typology addresses fragmentation and conceptual stretching in the study of political violence by categorizing based on two dimensions: whether the perpetrator is a state or non-state actor, and whether the target is a state or non-state entity.

5. Both target a group in an essentialized, direct, and total way, however, according to Kalyvas, genocide aims to exterminate a group, while ethnic cleansing aims to remove them territorially to create an ethnically homogeneous state.

6. Escalation is when violence intensifies and transforms from one type to another, such as peaceful protests escalating into violent riots or state repression leading to civil war.

7. Hobbes introduced the right of private freedom of thought into the political system, allowing individuals to maintain beliefs that contradicted the sovereign's decisions. Schmitt believed this undermined the unified political realm and created an opening for liberalism.

8. The Treaty of Westphalia established a system of regulated interstate relationships on a secular basis and began to define what could be considered "war" and "peace." The absolutist character of states also guaranteed domestic unity and minimized risks of civil war.

9. "Absolute enmity" is the total denial of the Other, leading to dehumanization and the unleashing of unrestrained violence. Schmitt views it as dangerous because it destroys the social and political order, including the friend/enemy distinction itself.

10. According to Kalyvas, what distinguishes terrorism from other forms of rebel violence or political assassination, is that terrorist groups target their own state but also operate internationally, targeting foreign states: they are domestic and/or transnational rebels, but do so in times of peace.

IV. Essay Questions

1. Compare and contrast the views of Hobbes, Weber, and Schmitt on the relationship between the state and violence. How do their different understandings of human nature and the role of the state shape their perspectives on politics and order?

2. Discuss Kalyvas' typology of political violence. How does this framework help to clarify the complexities of political conflict, and what are its limitations?

3. Analyze the concept of "legitimacy" in the context of state violence. How do states attempt to legitimize their use of force, and what factors can undermine their legitimacy?

4. Explore the role of "friend/enemy" distinctions in shaping political violence. How do these distinctions contribute to conflict, and what are the implications for international relations and domestic politics?

5. Critically evaluate the claim that the state monopoly on violence is essential for maintaining order and security. Are there alternative approaches to managing conflict that do not rely on centralized state power?

V. Glossary of Key Terms

• Violence (Galtung): Avoidable actions that cause human impairment or harm to human life, encompassing physical and structural forms.

• Political Violence: The use of physical force to kill, injure, or harm human beings to achieve political goals.

• State of Nature: A hypothetical condition in which there is no government or organized society.

• Sovereign: The supreme authority within a territory, possessing the power to enforce laws and maintain order.

• Leviathan: A metaphor for the state, representing its immense power and capacity to control society.

• Monopoly on Violence: The exclusive right of the state to use physical force within its territory.

• Legitimacy: The belief that a state's power is rightful and justified.

• Friend/Enemy Distinction: The fundamental political distinction between those who belong to the same group and those who are considered a threat.

• Political (Schmitt): The realm of human action defined by the possibility of violence between groups.

• State of Exception: A situation in which the sovereign suspends the normal legal order to deal with an emergency.

• Typology: A classification system that divides a broad concept into distinct categories.

• Interstate War: Armed conflict between two or more states.

• Civil War: Armed conflict within a state, typically between the government and one or more rebel groups.

• Insurgency: A protracted political-military struggle designed to weaken or overthrow a government.

• Revolution: A rapid and fundamental transformation of a society's state and class structure.

• State Repression: The use of violence or other coercive measures by a state against its own population.

• Genocide: The intentional destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.

• Ethnic Cleansing: The forced removal of a particular ethnic group from a territory.

• Intercommunal Violence: Violence between different communities within a state.

• Coup d'état: A sudden and illegal seizure of power from a government, typically by the military.

• Terrorism: The use of violence by non-state actors to intimidate a large audience beyond the immediate victims for political purposes.

• Organized Crime: Criminal activities conducted by structured groups for profit or power.

• Instrumentality: The use of violence as a tool to achieve another form of violence or political objective.

• Ontology: The philosophical study of being; assumptions about the nature and origins of human violence.

• Absolute Enmity: Total denial of the other.

• Conceptual Stretching: The process by which a concept loses its specific meaning and becomes overgeneralized.