unit 4 psychology flashcards
1. Victim Blaming
Definition: The tendency to hold the victim of a crime or accident responsible for their misfortune.
Example: In a case of sexual assault, someone might ask, "What was she wearing?" implying the victim somehow provoked the crime.
2. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
Definition: The tendency for people to comply with a large request after first agreeing to a small request.
Example: A salesperson might first ask you to take a free sample, and once you've agreed, they might try to sell you the full product.
3. Informational social influence
Definition: Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality, often in situations of uncertainty.
Example: If you're in a new city and unsure about the best restaurant, you might rely on a local's recommendation, trusting their knowledge.
4. Bystander effect
Definition: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when others are present.
Example: If someone collapses on a busy street, people may assume that someone else will call for help, leading to inaction.
5. Collectivism
Definition: A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of the group over individual needs or desires.
Example: In many Asian cultures, the family unit is prioritized over individual achievement or desires.
6. Mere-exposure effect
Definition: The tendency to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar.
Example: After hearing a song several times on the radio, you may start to like it more, even if you initially didn’t.
7. Altruism
Definition: Selfless concern for the well-being of others without expecting any personal gain.
Example: Donating blood to help strangers in need without any compensation or recognition is an example of altruism.
8. Self-fulfilling prophecy
Definition: When a belief or expectation about oneself or others leads to behaviors that cause that belief to come true.
Example: A teacher believes a student is gifted and provides extra encouragement, leading the student to perform well in class.
9. Projective test
Definition: A type of personality test where individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden thoughts and feelings.
Example: The Rorschach inkblot test, where a person’s interpretation of ambiguous inkblots is analyzed to gain insight into their personality.
10. Rorschach inkblots
Definition: A projective test consisting of 10 inkblot images used to analyze a person’s social behavior and emotional functioning.
Example: A person may see a butterfly in one of the inkblots, which could be interpreted as a sign of hope or transformation.
11. Reaction formation
Definition: A defense mechanism where a person behaves in a way opposite to their true feelings to avoid anxiety.
Example: A person who is secretly angry at a friend may go out of their way to act overly kind and generous toward them.
12. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Definition: A psychological theory proposing that people are motivated by a five-tier hierarchy of needs, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.
Example: A person struggling to find food (a physiological need) will prioritize that over self-esteem needs or personal growth.
13. Big Five Theory
Definition: A model of personality that includes five major traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Example: Someone who scores high in conscientiousness might be very organized and responsible, while someone high in neuroticism may experience frequent anxiety.
14. Reciprocal Determinism
Definition: A theory proposed by Bandura that personality is shaped by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors.
Example: A student’s behavior (study habits), their thoughts (belief in their abilities), and their environment (support from teachers) all influence their academic success.
15. Self-Efficacy
Definition: One’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.
Example: A person who believes they can learn to play the piano is more likely to practice and improve than someone who doubts their abilities.
16. Self-serving bias
Definition: The tendency to attribute personal successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.
Example: If a student gets a good grade, they might credit their intelligence, but if they fail, they may blame the teacher for poor grading.
17. Intrinsic motivation
Definition: Motivation driven by internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction or enjoyment.
Example: A person who enjoys painting for the creative expression, not for monetary gain, is intrinsically motivated.
18. Extrinsic motivation
Definition: Motivation driven by external rewards, such as money, praise, or recognition.
Example: A person works hard at their job to receive a bonus or promotion, showing extrinsic motivation.
19. Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal
Definition: A principle stating that optimal performance occurs at a moderate level of arousal, with performance declining at very high or very low levels.
Example: A person might perform well on an exam if they are slightly anxious (moderate arousal), but if they become too anxious, their performance may suffer.
20. Emotional Appraisal
Definition: The process by which individuals evaluate an event or situation and decide how it will affect their emotions.
Example: After a job interview, a person may appraise the experience as either a success (feeling happy) or a failure (feeling disappointed), depending on how they evaluate it.
21. Actor-Observer Bias
Definition: The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external factors, while attributing others' actions to internal factors.
Example: If you fail a test, you might blame the difficult questions (external), but if someone else fails, you might think they didn’t study enough (internal).
22. Out-group homogeneity bias
Definition: The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as being more similar to each other than they really are.
Example: Assuming all members of a rival sports team have the same personality or characteristics because they support the opposing team.
23. Stereotyping
Definition: The act of ascribing specific traits or characteristics to individuals based on their membership in a particular group.
Example: Believing that all teenagers are rebellious, without considering individual differences.
24. Central route
Definition: A method of persuasion that involves careful consideration of the content of a message and logical arguments.
Example: A person might be persuaded to buy a car after hearing detailed facts about its safety features and fuel efficiency.
25. Peripheral route
Definition: A method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues, such as attractiveness or credibility, rather than the content of the message.
Example: A person may be influenced to buy a product because a celebrity endorses it, without considering the actual product features.
26. Stanford Prison Experiment
Definition: A controversial 1971 psychological study by Zimbardo examining the effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment.
Example: In the experiment, participants assigned to be guards became abusive, showing how situational factors can influence behavior.
27. Social loafing
Definition: The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.
Example: In a group project, some members may do less work, relying on others to carry the load.
28. Group polarization
Definition: The tendency for group discussion to lead to more extreme decisions or opinions than initially held by individuals.
Example: After discussing political views with like-minded friends, you may end up with more extreme opinions than before the discussion.
29. Groupthink
Definition: A phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making and a lack of critical thinking.
Example: In a meeting, everyone agrees on a decision without voicing concerns, leading to flawed conclusions due to a lack of dissenting opinions.
30. Reciprocity norm
Definition: The social norm that suggests people should return a favor or kindness.
Example: If a colleague helps you with a task, you may feel obligated to help them in return when they need assistance.
31. Deindividuation
Definition: A psychological state in which individuals lose self-awareness and feel less accountable for their actions, often in group settings.
Example: A person might engage in reckless behavior during a large, anonymous crowd, like a protest or a riot, because they feel less responsible for their actions.
32. Superordinate goals
Definition: Goals that require cooperation between groups, leading to conflict resolution and group unity.
Example: Two rival schools might cooperate to raise funds for a local charity, leading to increased teamwork and less conflict between the groups.
33. Displacement
Definition: A defense mechanism in which emotions or feelings are redirected from the original source to a safer target.
Example: After being reprimanded by a boss, a person may take out their frustration by yelling at their partner instead.
34. Projection
Definition: A defense mechanism in which individuals attribute their own undesirable thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to others.
Example: A person who feels jealous of a colleague might accuse that colleague of being jealous of them.
35. Personality inventory
Definition: A type of psychological test used to measure and assess personality traits.
Example: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used personality inventory to assess personality traits based on preferences.
36. Arousal theory
Definition: The theory that individuals are motivated to perform actions to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Example: Someone may go for a run to increase their energy and boost their mood when they are feeling bored or lethargic.
37. Incentive theory
Definition: The theory that behavior is motivated by a desire to obtain external rewards or avoid negative consequences.
Example: A person may study hard to earn a scholarship or prize, which provides an external incentive to succeed.
38. Display rules
Definition: Social norms governing the appropriate expression of emotions in a given culture.
Example: In some cultures, people may be expected to suppress expressions of anger, while in others, it may be more acceptable.
39. Approach-approach conflict
Definition: A psychological conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two equally desirable options.
Example: Choosing between two exciting vacation destinations, both offering unique experiences, but only having time for one.
40. Homeostasis
Definition: The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.
Example: The body regulates its internal temperature to maintain a steady 98.6°F, even if the surrounding temperature fluctuates.
41. Conscientiousness
Definition: A personality trait characterized by being organized, responsible, and dependable.
Example: Someone who plans ahead, completes tasks on time, and follows through on commitments demonstrates conscientiousness.
42. Agreeableness
Definition: A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, and trusting.
Example: A highly agreeable person is likely to help others, avoid conflict, and be considerate of others' feelings.
43. Correlational research
Definition: Research that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.
Example: Studying the relationship between hours spent studying and exam scores without controlling other factors.
44. Cross-sectional study
Definition: A research method that examines data from participants at one point in time, often used to compare different groups.
Example: A researcher may compare the physical health of adults aged 20-30 versus those aged 60-70.
45. Self-esteem
Definition: One's overall sense of self-worth or personal value.
Example: A person with high self-esteem might feel confident in social situations, while someone with low self-esteem may feel insecure.
46. In-group bias
Definition: The tendency to favor individuals within one's own group over those in an out-group.
Example: A sports fan might believe their team's fans are superior to those of rival teams.
47. Prejudice
Definition: A preconceived opinion or attitude about a person or group that is not based on reason or actual experience.
Example: Having a negative opinion about someone from a different ethnicity without ever interacting with them.
48. Diffusion of responsibility
Definition: The tendency for individuals to feel less responsibility to act in an emergency when others are present.
Example: If a person collapses in a crowded area, bystanders might fail to help, assuming someone else will take action.
49. Ethnocentrism
Definition: The belief that one's own culture or ethnicity is superior to others.
Example: A person from one country might view their customs as "better" or "more advanced" than those of another country.
50. External locus of control
Definition: The belief that outcomes are determined by external forces such as luck, fate, or the actions of others.
Example: A person might believe they failed a test because the questions were unfair, rather than acknowledging their lack of preparation.
51. Internal locus of control
Definition: The belief that one’s actions and decisions directly influence the outcomes in their life.
Example: A person might believe that their success at work is due to their hard work and efforts, rather than luck.