AP Gov 2.12

What is the federal bureaucracy

  • Vast organization of executive branch employees (~3 million people).

  • Tasked with implementing and enforcing federal laws.

  • Includes everyone from Cabinet secretaries to IRS accountants.

  • Grows as the nation’s population and responsibilities increase.

Bureaucratic Functions

Bureaucrats:

  • Administer federal programs and services (mail, highways, borders).

  • Interpret and enforce laws passed by Congress.

  • Exercise administrative discretion — power to decide how to implement laws.

  • Play a key role in shaping national policy.

Structure of the Bureaucracy

The federal bureaucracy includes:

  1. Cabinet Departments (15 total)

  2. Independent Executive Agencies

  3. Independent Regulatory Commissions

  4. Government Corporations

All operate under the Executive Branch, but many have different degrees of independence.

Cabinet Departments

  • 15 executive departments (e.g., Defense, State, Education).

  • Each headed by a Cabinet Secretary (appointed by the president, confirmed by Senate).

  • Departments oversee specific policy areas.

  • Largest: Department of Defense.

    • Example: Department of Homeland Security → oversees TSA, ICE, Coast Guard.

Independent Executive Agencies

  • Perform specialized functions outside departmental structure.

    • Example: NASA, EPA, CIA, SSA.

  • Heads appointed by the president, but operate with some independence.

  • Created by Congress to avoid political pressure from departments.

Independent Regulatory Commerce

  • Make and enforce rules for specific industries.

  • Run by multi-member boards (5–7 members, staggered terms).

    • Examples:

      • FCC (communications)

      • FTC (trade)

      • Nuclear Regulatory Commission

  • Designed to be nonpartisan and insulated from presidential control.

Government Corporations

  • Blend of private business + government agency.

  • Provide services that could be private but are essential to the public.

    • Examples:

      • USPS

      • Amtrak

      • Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

  • Funded through service fees and federal subsidies.

Bureaucratic Tasks

  • Writing and enforcing regulations (e.g., EPA & Clean Water Act).

  • Enforcement and fines for noncompliance.

  • Compliance monitoring — ensuring industry follows standards.

  • Testifying before Congress — experts provide input on policy.

Iron Triangles

A stable, mutually beneficial relationship between…

  • Congressional Committees (funding & oversight)

  • Bureaucratic Agencies (policy implementation)

  • Interest Groups (information & campaign support)

All three work together to shape and maintain policy — sometimes criticized for favoring special interests over the public.

Issue Networks

  • Looser, more modern version of iron triangles.

    • Include:

      • Experts, academics, media, think tanks, interest groups, and bureaucrats.

    • Form around specific policy issues (e.g., healthcare, environment).

    • Often temporary but highly influential in shaping public policy.

From Patronage to merit

The Spoils System

  • Early system of rewarding loyal party members with government jobs.

  • Popular under Andrew Jackson — “to the victor belong the spoils.”

  • Led to corruption and inefficiency.

Civil Service Reforms

Assassination of President Garfield (1881) led to reform.

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883):

  • Created the merit system (hiring based on exams/qualifications).

  • Established Civil Service Commission.

  • Reduced patronage and political influence in hiring.

Modern Bureaucratic Reform

Civil Service Reform Act (1978):

  • Replaced Civil Service Commission with Office of Personnel Management (OPM).

  • Promoted performance-based evaluations.

  • Gave president more flexibility in managing federal employees.

National Performance Review (1993):

  • Led by President Clinton.

  • Goal: “From Red Tape to Results.”

  • Sought to make government more efficient, customer-focused, and less bureaucratic.