India's Changing Political Map and Historical Evolution (13th - 19th Century)

Timeline of Major Events in Indian History ($1526$ to $1920$)

• $1526$: First Battle of Panipat; Babur's victory establishes the Mughal Empire.
• $1565$: Battle of Talikota; destruction of Vijayanagara city.
• $1576$: Battle of Haldighati; Maharana Pratap forced to retreat.
• $1671$: Battle of Saraighat; the Ahoms defeat the Mughals.
• $1699$: Formation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh.
• $1754$: Beginning of Maratha control of Delhi.
• $1799$: Establishment of the Sikh Empire.

Invasions and the New Era ($11^{th}$ Century Onward)

• Origins of Invasions: A new era began in the early $11^{th}$ century with invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains. These invaders were largely Central Asian—specifically Turkic or Afghan.
• Motivations: The invaders were drawn to India for its reputed riches, territorial ambitions, and the desire to spread their versions of religion, using force or violence if necessary.
• Spellings and Transcription: Due to difficulties in transcribing Persian script into Roman script, spelling variations exist, such as 'Khalji' vs 'Khilji' and 'Mughal' vs 'Mughul' or 'Moghul'.

The Delhi Sultanate: Ala-ud-din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq

• Ala-ud-din Khilji ($14^{th}$ Century):
  • Conquests: At the turn of the $14^{th}$ century, he conducted military campaigns across North and Central India, sacking and plundering cities.
  • Mongol Defense: He successfully repelled several invasions by Mongol forces attempting to add India to the vast Mongol Empire.
  • Southern Expansion: His slave-general Malik Kafur expanded the Sultanate southward, attacking Hindu centers like Srirangam, Madurai, Chidambaram, and possibly Rameswaram. The plunder financed the Sultanate's massive military.
  • Coinage: A minted tanka coin weighing $10.7\,gms$ bears the inscription 'Sikander Sani', which means 'the second Alexander' in Persian.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq:
  • Imperial Extent: For the first time since the Mauryan Empire, most of the subcontinent was under one ruler, though this was short-lived.
  • Capital Transfer: He moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri, near present-day Sambhaji Nagar), over a distance of $1,000\,km$. The plan misfired, and shifting back to Delhi resulted in great loss of life.
  • Token Currency: He introduced cheap copper coins as tokens with the value of silver or gold. This led to confusion, counterfeiting, and economic decline.

Questions & Discussion: The Sultanate Era

• Why call himself 'the second Alexander'? Ala-ud-din Khilji likely chose this title to reflect his global territorial ambitions and military successes similar to Alexander the Great.
• Let's Explore: Resources for War: Maintaining a medieval army required vast resources, including weapons, food for soldiers, animals (horses, elephants, camels), and road construction for transport.

Socio-Political Realities under the Sultanate

• Court Life: Sultans and the elite lived in luxury in palaces with elaborate clothing and fine food. Wealth came from military plunder, high taxes, and the slave trade.
• The Slave Trade: Enslaved people provided free labor or were sold to distant centers of agricultural production.
• Iconoclasm and Destruction: Attacks on sacred Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu images were motivated by plunder and iconoclasm.
• Terminology Note: The term 'image' is used as a neutral term. Classical Indian texts used words like mürti, vigraha, or pratima. The terms 'idol' or 'icon' can be considered pejorative in Abrahamic contexts.
• Jizya Tax: This was a tax imposed on non-Muslim subjects to grant them protection and exemption from military service. In practice, it was an economic burden and a social incentive for conversion to Islam.

Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate: Kalinga and the Musunuri Nayakas

• Eastern Ganga Kingdom (Kalinga): Failed to be subdued by the Sultanate. Included present-day Odisha and parts of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Narasimhadeva I: A mid-$13^{th}$-century ruler known for military strength and cultural brilliance. He defeated the Sultanate's governor of Bengal and built the Surya temple at Konark to commemorate his victories.
• Musunuri Nayakas: Telugu chieftains who rallied over $75$ other chieftains into a confederacy. Between $1330$ and $1336$, they defeated Sultanate forces and expelled Muhammad bin Tughlaq's army from Warangal (Telangana).

The Invasion of Timur and the Lodi Dynasty

• Timur's Attack ($14^{th}$ Century): A Turkic-Mongol conqueror from Central Asia launched a devastating attack on Delhi. His objectives were to wage "war with the infidels" and plunder their wealth. He killed or enslaved large numbers, left Delhi in ruins, and withdrew with huge plunder.
• Lodi Dynasty: Emerged in the aftermath and was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. By then, the territory had shrunk significantly due to internal resistance.

The Rise of Southern and Regional Powers

• Hoysala Kingdom: Ruled Southern India (present-day Karnataka); remained the only independent southern kingdom for a time but declined in the mid-$14^{th}$ century before being absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • Symbolism: Kannada folklore tells of a man named Sala who fought a lion to save his guru, giving the dynasty its name: 'Hoy (strike)! Sala'.
• Regional Sultanates: The Bahmani Sultanate (mid-$14^{th}$ century) and others in Gujarat and Bengal emerged, leading to complex alliances.
• Mewar Kingdom (Rajasthan): Remained beyond Sultanate reach; Rana Kumbha ($15^{th}$ century) repelled invasions and built the Kumbhalgarh Fort, which features a $36$-kilometer-long wall.

The Vijayanagara Empire ($14^{th}$ to $17^{th}$ Centuries)

• Founding: Established by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, formerly governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Their capital was established at Hampi on the advice of their guru, Vidyaranya.
• Rivalries: Major rivals included the Bahmani Sultanate (which fragmented into the Five Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar) and the Gajapati rulers of Odisha.
• Krishnadevaraya ($16^{th}$ Century):
  • Expansion and peak dominance over the Deccan.
  • Cultural Patronage: Patronized Sanskrit, Telugu, and Kannada poets. He composed the Telugu epic Amuktamalyada about the Tamil saint Andal, including a section on Rajaniti (royal policy).
  • Architecture: Built the Vitthala temple in Vijayanagara, famous for its "musical pillars" which emit different notes when struck.
• Foreign Accounts: Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes described the city as large as Rome, beautiful, with countless people and great abundance in markets.
• End of the Empire: After Krishnadevaraya's death in $1529$, the Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition and defeated the forces of Ramaraya at the Battle of Talikota ($1565$). The city was sacked, people massacred, and buildings destroyed. The empire ended in the mid-$17^{th}$ century.

The Mughal Empire: Babur, Humayun, and Sher Shah Suri

• Babur ($1526$): A descendant of Timur thrown out of Samarkand. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat using gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns.
  • Baburnama: His autobiography reveals him as cultured yet brutal. He took pride in "towers of skulls" from slaughtered populations but stayed in India for its wealth, gold, silver, and artisans.
• Humayun: Struggled to hold the empire together after Babur's death in $1530$; briefly lost territory to Sher Shah Suri.
• Sher Shah Suri: Powerful Afghan leader who established the short-lived Sur Empire and introduced lasting administrative reforms.
• Himu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya): A commander under late Suri rulers who briefly captured Delhi. He was defeated and beheaded by Akbar after being injured at the Second Battle of Panipat.

The Reign of Akbar ($1556$–$1605$)

• Acceding to Power: Became emperor at age $13$. His reign lasted almost $50$ years.
• Early Conquests and Brutality: At Chittorgarh, following heavy resistance, he massacred $30,000\,civilians$ and enslaved surviving women/children. Rajput women committed jauhar (mass self-immolation) to preserve honor/avoid slavery.
• Evolution of Policy: Later moved toward political strategies like marriage alliances and welcoming regional leaders.
• Sulh-i-kul: The doctrine of 'peace with all'. He abolished the jizya tax, appointed Hindu officials, and famously stated he was overwhelmed with shame for formerly persecuting others out of ignorance.
• Intellectual Interests: Despite being illiterate, he invited scholars and established a 'house of translation' at Fatehpur Sikri. Sanskrit texts like the Mahabharata (rendered as Razmnama or 'Book of War'), Ramayana, and Bhagavad Gita were translated into Persian.

Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb

• Shah Jahan: Famed for the Taj Mahal and the flowering of Mughal art/architecture, including expansion into the Deccan.
• Aurangzeb (Alamgir, r. $1658$–$1707$):
  • Succession War: Defeated and executed his brother Dara Shikoh; imprisoned his father Shah Jahan in Agra Fort.
  • Expansion: Reached the empire's greatest geographical extent but faced constant rebellions. Spent his last $25\,years$ fighting in the Deccan, which depleted the treasury.
  • Religious Policy: Reimposed jizya and pilgrimage taxes. In $1669$, he ordered the demolition of schools and temples, including those at Banaras, Mathura, and Somnath. He also persecuted Sufis and Zoroastrians.

Resistance to the Mughals

• Peasant and Tribal Rebellions: Jat peasantry in the $17^{th}$ century fought the Mughal army ($20,000\,men$). Tribal groups like the Bhils, Gonds, Santhals, and Kochs resisted annexation and taxes.
• Rani Durgavati: Queen of the Gond kingdom of Garha. In $1564$, she led $20,000\,soldiers$ and $1,000\,elephants$ against Akbar's general. She took her own life on the battlefield to avoid capture at age $40$.
• Rajput Resistance:
  • Maharana Pratap (Mewar): Refused Mughal suzerainty. Fought the Battle of Haldighati in $1576$. Escaped to continue guerrilla warfare from the Aravalli hills for years with support from the Bhils.
  • Durgadas Rathore (Marwar): Rebelled during Aurangzeb's reign to protect Jodhpur's independence.
• The Ahoms (Assam):
  • Paik System: Every able-bodied man provided military or labor service in exchange for land. This allowed for a large force without a permanent army.
  • Battle of Saraighat ($1671$): Commander Lachit Borohukan and $10,000\,men$ defeated a Mughal force of $30,000\,soldiers$ on the Brahmaputra River near Guwahati using superior knowledge of geography and river tactics.

The Rise of the Sikhs

• Guru Nanak ($15^{th}$ Century): Spread a message of equality and the oneness of God (Ik Onkar).
• Guru Arjan: Tortured to death by Jahangir for supporting a rebellion. He first compiled the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur: Martyrdom in $1675$. He stood with Kashmiri Pandits facing persecution and was beheaded on Aurangzeb's orders at Chandni Chowk, Delhi (now Gurudwara Sis Gunj Sahib).
• Guru Gobind Singh: The $10^{th}$ Guru; formed the Khalsa in $1699$. This was a martial brotherhood dedicated to justice and defense of the faith.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Unified Sikh confederacies at the turn of the $19^{th}$ century to establish the Sikh Empire, which resisted Mughal remnants and British expansion.

Administrative and Economic Systems

• Sultanate Administration: Centered on the Sultan with absolute authority. Used the iqta system, where territories were assigned to iqtadars (nobles) to collect taxes and maintain troops (non-hereditary).
• Mughal Administration:
  • Key Ministers: Diwan (Finances), Mir Bakhshi (Military), Khan-i-Saman (Public Works/Trade), Sadr (Justice/Religion).
  • Mansabdari System: Ranks (mansabs) required officials to maintain specific numbers of troops, horses, and elephants. They were usually paid via land grants (jagirs).
  • Todar Mal's Reforms: Introduced detailed crop yield and price surveys for systematic revenue collection.
• The Economy:
  • Mainstay: Agriculture, with revenue typically at $\frac{1}{5}$ of produce, sometimes reaching $\frac{1}{2}$.
  • Infrastructure: Used the Persian wheel for irrigation. New cities and road networks expanded significantly.
  • Trade: Thriving exports in textiles, weapons, and jewelry. The hundi system allowed merchants to transfer funds without moving currency physically, reducing vulnerability to plunder.
  • Temples as Economic Hubs: Temples held land in trust, provided credit to merchants, and funded maritime trade.
  • Wealth Gap: While India was a land of abundance, wealth was concentrated among rulers and merchants. The common people often faced harsh conditions and displacement due to frequent warfare.