Unit 7: Political Unification, Reforms, and War

Political Unification, Reforms, and War (1850-1880 CE)

Overview of Political Dynamics Post-1848

  • Aftermath of the Revolutions of 1848

    • Conservatism prevailed over liberalism, radicalism, and socialism in the short term.

    • Revolutions failed to establish durable liberal republics, constitutional monarchies, or independent nation-states.

    • In the long term, many liberal and nationalist goals were achieved in subsequent decades but with caveats.

    • Example: Unification of Italy and Germany occurred, but as conservative entities rather than liberal republics.

  • The breakdown of the Concert of Europe in the second half of the 19th century resulted in growing national and imperial rivalries, laying the groundwork for WWI in 1914.

The Second French Empire (1852-1870)

  • Establishment and Consolidation of Power

    • Louis Napoleon was initially democratically elected as president.

    • He restructured government to secure a further 10 years in power.

    • Used plebiscites to legitimize his rule, convincing the populace to restore the French Empire.

    • A staggering 97% voted to restore him as Emperor of the French in late 1852, leading to an authoritarian regime akin to a semi-dictatorship.

  • Restrictions on Freedom

    • Harsh censorship of the French press was reintroduced.

    • Political parties were confined and operated under oppressive conditions.

    • Laws were enacted through the executive Council of State, and the Chamber of Deputies was replaced with the Corps législatif, which was elected by universal suffrage for six-year terms but held little real legislative power due to weakened authority through infrequent meetings.

Changes Under Napoleon III

  • Economic and Infrastructural Development

    • Experienced major economic successes during the 1850s to early 1860s:

    • Constructed the first major railroad network in France.

    • Founded the first major investment banks and department stores, contributing to the growth of finance and trade.

    • Provided financial backing for the construction of the Suez Canal by Ferdinand de Lesseps, which encountered British opposition.

    • Patron of the arts:

    • Commissioned the Palais Garnier to house the Paris Opera.

    • Beautified Paris to prevent future revolutions, introducing wider streets (boulevards) to thwart barricade formation and aid troop movement. This urban transformation was executed under Baron Haussmann's direction, termed “Haussmannization.”

    • Developed a comprehensive public services network: underground sewage systems, public water supply.

    • Implemented populist programs such as:

    • Legitimizing trade unions and approving the right to strike.

    • Increasing access to public education for lower classes through an expanded lycée system.

    • Sponsored the creation of free hospitals for the poor in Paris.

    • Promoted spectacles to maintain support:

    • Sponsored World’s Fairs and Great Exhibitions to exhibit French prosperity and global trade significance.

Napoleon III’s Downfall

Foreign Policy and Interventionism

  • Early Victories and Later Failures

    • Initial successes included victories in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and supporting Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria in the Second Italian War of Unification (1859).

    • Blunders in late 1860s and early 1870s included attempts to distract from economic downturns and authoritarianism through foreign adventures:

    • Attempted to establish a puppet regime in Mexico by backing Emperor Maximilian (ultimately executed by Mexican liberals in 1867).

    • His efforts culminated in the disastrous Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) leading to his capture, abdication, and exile.

  • The collapse of the Second French Empire led to a conflict between successor states, particularly the Paris Commune and Third French Republic, in the spring of 1871.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Causes

  • Decline of the Ottoman Empire

    • Ottoman territories began breaking away, causing loss of prestige and territorial integrity:

    • Serbia (1827), Greece (1830), and loss of parts of the Balkans.

    • Loss of Algeria to France (1830).

    • Reform efforts began in the 1830s (Tanzimat) but failed to regain power.

  • Competition Among European Powers

    • The “Great Game” ensued between Britain and Russia for control over Afghanistan.

    • Declining effectiveness of the Concert of Europe.

    • Russia's encroachment into Bessarabia and occupation of Crimea undermined balance of power, posing a threat to European stability.

    • Russia utilized Orthodox Christianity to extend influence over Eastern Europe.

Timeline of the War

  • 1853: Russia's demands for control over Christian shrines in Palestine are declined by the Ottoman Empire.

  • October 4, 1853: The Ottoman Empire declares war on Russia after occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia.

  • March 28, 1854: Britain and France declare war in effort to curb Russian expansion.

  • September 1854: Allied forces land in Crimea; key battles ensue.

  • October 25, 1854: Battle of Balaklava exemplifies British valor despite heavy casualties.

  • 1855: The Siege of Sevastopol concludes with an Allied victory.

  • 1856: Treaty of Paris ends the war, reestablishing certain international balance of power norms.

Impacts

  • Established as the first “newspaper war”; widespread dissemination of conflict via photography and telegraph.

  • Resulted in approximately 250,000 combined deaths, with 60% attributable to disease.

    • Florence Nightingale pioneered modern nursing in response to healthcare failures observed during the war.

  • The war ultimately dismantled the Concert of Europe, estranging Russia from Britain and France; Austrian neutrality fostered hostility between Austria and Russia, especially in the Balkans.

  • Set the stage for Italian and German unification movements in the 1860s-70s.

Unification of Italy: Risorgimento (1858-1870)

  • Key Figures and Events

    • Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour:

    • Became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852, advocating for industrialization and infrastructure development.

    • Allied with Napoleon III during the Crimean War to elevate Piedmont-Sardinia’s global standing.

    • Engaged in the Second Italian War of Independence (1859), which saw French support against Austria; however, France’s separate peace strained Cavour.

    • Giuseppe Garibaldi:

    • Initially supported Mazzini but pivoted towards monarchism, believing it essential for unification under Victor Emmanuel II.

    • Led the “Expedition of the Thousand” to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies against Cavour's strategic direction.

  • Italian unification was proclaimed on March 17, 1861, but experienced delays until Rome was captured from the Papal States in September 1870.

Unification of Germany: Prussian Reforms (7.3)

  • Prussia as a Central Figure

    • Prussia served as the nucleus for the German nation-state through the economic Zollverein (free trade).

  • Political Developments

    • A new constitution was established in 1848 creating a bi-cameral legislature; with changes leading to increased middle-class influence.

    • King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as Minister President in 1862 to consolidate power and work against the Prussian parliament.

  • Otto von Bismarck:

    • Represented Prussian aristocracy (Junker) with expertise in diplomacy and an innovative approach termed Realpolitik, focusing on practicality over ideology.

    • Bismarck lead decisively, engaging in calculated wars to expand Prussian influence and ultimately unite Germany:

    • The Danish War (1864) against Denmark and the Austro-Prussian War (1866) established Prussian dominance.

    • The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) concluded with the unification of Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm I in 1871 in a display of military and nationalistic prowess.

  • Germany emerged as a powerful military and economic force in Europe by the end of the 19th century, setting conditions for future global conflicts.

The Paris Commune vs. the French Third Republic (March - May 1871)

  • The Third Republic formed post Franco-Prussian War amidst significant discontent from Paris’ urban workers who felt betrayed by government action.

  • The Paris Commune attempted to break away, enacting multiple social reforms but ultimately faced military repression from the Third Republic.

    • This conflict resulted in significant casualties (7,000 to 10,000 killed) and shaped subsequent socialist movements in France and beyond.

  • The fall of the Commune and consolidation of the Third Republic established a lengthy period of stability, although underlying societal tensions remained.

Austria-Hungary: The Dual Monarchy

  • Austria following the 1848 revolutions and the Austro-Prussian War; the Ausgleich of 1867 established a dual monarchy, dividing the governance between Austria and Hungary

  • This system created ongoing tensions among ethnic minorities, contributing to rising nationalistic sentiments that would further shape European conflicts leading up to WWI.

United Kingdom Developments

  • Political stability through gradual reforms minimized uprisings, expanding voting rights through legislative acts.

  • The Victorian Age defined cultural values of duty and respectability, shaping national identity.

  • Premier rivalries emerged shaping policies of governance with key leaders like Gladstone and Disraeli juggling economic and social reforms while focusing on imperial expansion.

  • The Irish quest for autonomy continued to gain following in the face of historic grievances against British rule, setting the stage for future legislative battles.