Campbell Biology 12th Edition Chapter 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,12,13,15,16,17 notes

  • Cells: Basic unit of life; prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms are made of cells.
  • Prokaryotes: Lack a nuclear membrane.
  • Eukaryotes: Have DNA enclosed within a nuclear envelope.
  • DNA: Genetic material, nucleotides are to genetic information. Correct order of organization of genetic material from smallest to largest: nucleotide, gene, chromosome, genome.
  • Reductionism: Understanding the chemical basis of inheritance by studying the molecular structure of DNA.
  • Emergent Properties: Interactions between different components within a living system.
  • Ecological Organization: Organism is part of a community; a community is part of a population.
  • Positive Feedback Regulation: Apple ripening process; ripe apple produces ethylene, signaling neighbors to ripen, leading to more ethylene production.
  • Genomics and Proteomics: Made possible by high throughput technology, bioinformatics, and interdisciplinary research teams.
  • Genetic Code: All forms of life employ the same genetic code; evidence of common ancestry.
  • Taxonomy: Branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying organisms.
  • Central Dogma: DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into protein.

Chemical Elements and Compounds

  • Essential Elements: About 25 of 92 natural elements are essential to life. Calcium, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur account for most of the remaining 4% of an organism's mass.
  • Trace Element: Required in only minute quantities; Iron is a trace element required by all forms of life.
  • Compounds: H2O and CH4 are compounds O2 is NOT.

Atomic Structure

  • Neutral Atoms: Have an equal number of protons and electrons.
  • Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom (e.g., oxygen with 8 protons has an atomic number of 8).
  • Ions: H- has 2 electrons; H+ has 0 electrons.
  • Noble Gases: Do not readily react due to completely paired and stable electron shells (e.g., Argon).
  • Isotopes: Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons.
  • Mass Number: Molybdenum isotopes can have between 50 and 58 neutrons.
  • Ions Net Charge: If the amount of Protons < electrons.

Chemical Bonding

  • Covalent Bond: Likely to be polar if one atom is more electronegative than the other.
  • Ionic Bond: Most likely to form between elements V and Z.
  • Hydrogen Bond: Broken when water evaporates. Responsible for cohesion, surface tension, and adhesion properties of water.
  • Van der Waals Interactions: Result from asymmetrical electron distribution in a molecule.

Chemical Reactions

  • Reversible Reactions: Forward and reverse reactions continue with no net effect on reactant and product concentrations.
  • Reaction Rates: Addition of reactants increases forward reaction rate.

Water and Solutions

  • Polar Covalent Bonds: Formed between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a water molecule.
  • Hydrogen Bonds: Formed by attraction between positive and negative ends of water molecules.
  • Cohesion: Property of water responsible for raindrop formation.
  • High Specific Heat: Water has a higher specific heat that influences bodies in surrounding areas.
  • Thermal Energy and Temperature: Temperature of land rises more quickly than that of the sea as the Specific Heat of Soil is less than water..
  • Hydrophobic Substances: Nonpolar and repel water molecules (e.g., vegetable oil).
  • Mole (mol): 1 mole of glucose (molecular mass = 180 Daltons) is 180 grams of glucose.
  • Acidity: CO2 in raindrops makes them slightly acidic.
  • Neutral Solution: Has equal concentrations of H+ and OH- ions.
  • Buffer Solution: Consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base; resists pH changes.

Organic Chemistry and Carbon

  • Organic Molecules: Defined by the presence of carbon; complexity and variety due to carbon's chemical versatility.
  • Miller's Experiment: Demonstrated that organic molecules can be synthesized abiotically under early Earth conditions.
  • Carbon Valency: Carbon has a valency of 4, allowing it to form diverse bonds.
  • Isomers: Have the same molecular formula but differ in structure. Geometric and optical isomerism are two types of stereoisomerism.
  • Enantiomers: Molecules that are mirror images of each other.
    - (+)(R)-Thalidomide is a sedative, but (-)(S)-Thalidomide is a teratogen (A drug that is toxic in nature).
  • Functional Groups:
    --Methyl: Unreactive, but can alter gene expression when added to DNA bases.
    --Hydroxyl: Makes molecules soluble in water.
    --Carboxyl: Gives acidic character to amino acids.
  • ATP: Principle energy carrying molecule in a cell.

Biological Macromolecules

  • Polymers: Made from monomers via dehydration reactions; broken down by hydrolysis.
  • Cellulose: For the polymerization of a 22 monomer-long cellulose molecule, 21 water molecules are required.
  • Glucose: An aldose and a hexose sugar.
  • Glycogen: Has alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds.
  • Starch and Cellulose: Both are polymers of glucose, but humans can only digest starch because we have an enzyme that can hydrolyze the bonds.
  • Insoluble Fiber: Refers to cellulose.
  • Chitin: Composed of glucose and N-acetyl glucosamine.
  • Lipids: Heterogeneous group of hydrophobic molecules, including:
    --Cooking oil and gasoline (hydrocarbons) DO NOT have a polar or charged region.
    --Saturated fats contain more hydrogen than the same number of carbons with unsaturated fats.
  • Atherosclerosis: Associated with the consumptions of butter, liver, and kidney.
  • Amino Acid: The diversity of the amino acids comes from their side chains.
  • Protein Denaturation: Primary structure is unaffected.
    --There are some proteins that form a complete 3-D structure only when they interact with their targets.

CELL Biology

  • Microscopy: Cryo-electron microscopy is best for visualizing protein complexes in cellular environments without preservatives.
  • Cell Structure: Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles; Prokaryotic cells do not.
  • Cell Size Limits: The ratio of surface area to volume limits maximum cell size.
    --To increase surface area to volume ration, divide by the shortest sides.
  • Nuclear Pore Complex: Regulates movement of proteins and RNAs into and out of the nucleus
    Denaturation of Hemoglobin: The four α and β polypeptides dissociate.
  • Smooth ER: Abundant in liver cells and responsible for detoxification.
  • Enantiomers: Molecules That Have Identical Chemical Formulas But Differ In The Branching Of Their Carbon Skeletons
  • Tay-Sachs Disease: Lysosome lacks something for the breakdown of Lipids/Enzymes and cannot break them down, therefore the lipid tissue accumulation increases.
  • In such cases the tumor formation (of tissue) needs large amounts of the plant’s energy for tissue formation.
  • Peroxisomes: Found in plant, animal, and bacterial cells and help perform actions like the detoxification of alcohol by taking hydroge atoms and combing them with oxygen molecules that produces (H2O2).
  • Cytoskeletons: The functions will require the aid of motor proteins.
  • Extracellular Matrix: Transmits signals from ECM to cytoskeleton.
  • Ph of Solutions: Increasing the amount of H+ ions in a solution (Hcl) increases the amount of acidity and will lower the pH of solution. A concentration from 1.6 to 1.3.