Psychology of Learning - Revision Sheet

Classical Conditioning

• Discovered by Ivan Pavlov through dog digestion research.
• Learning through association.

Pavlov's Experiment

• Before Conditioning:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = Food $\rightarrow$ Unconditioned Response (UCR) = Salivation
  • Neutral Stimulus (NS) = Bell $\rightarrow$ No Response
• During Conditioning:
  • Bell (NS) rung before food (UCS).
  • Dog salivates to food (UCR).
• After Conditioning:
  • Bell becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
  • Dog salivates (CR) to bell.

Key Terms

• UCS: Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
• UCR: Natural response to UCS (e.g., salivation).
• NS: No response initially (e.g., bell).
• CS: Previously NS, now triggers response (e.g., bell after pairing).
• CR: Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

The Process

• Before: NS (bell) $\rightarrow$ No Response; UCS (food) $\rightarrow$ UCR (salivation).
• During: NS (bell) + UCS (food) $\rightarrow$ UCR (salivation).
• After: CS (bell) $\rightarrow$ CR (salivation).

Acquisition vs. Performance

• Acquisition: NS paired with UCS.
• Performance: Observable learned response to CS.

Contiguity vs. Contingency

• Contiguity: Timing between NS and UCS.
• Contingency: Predictability of UCS after NS.

Stimulus Generalisation vs. Discrimination

• Generalisation: CR to stimuli similar to CS.
• Discrimination: Distinguishing between CS and other stimuli.

Extinction

• Weakening and disappearance of CR when CS is repeatedly presented without UCS.

Phobias

Biological Preparedness

• Organisms are biologically programmed to form certain associations.
• Taste Aversions: Develop taste aversions to foods that cause sickness.
• Phobias: Predisposed to fears that posed threats to survival.

Systematic Desensitisation

• Therapy to overcome phobias by staying calm in the face of fear.
• Steps:
  • Relaxation Techniques: Deep breathing, PMR, Visualisation.
  • Anxiety Hierarchy: List from least to most scary.
  • Pairing Relaxation with Exposure: Face fears gradually.

Operant Conditioning

Punishment vs. Reinforcement

• Reinforcement: Encourages behaviour.
  • Positive: Adds something pleasant.
  • Negative: Removes something unpleasant.
• Punishment: Discourages behaviour.
  • Positive: Adds something unpleasant.
  • Negative: Removes something pleasant.

Aversive Punishment vs. Response Cost

• Aversive Punishment: Adds something unpleasant.
• Response Cost: Removes something pleasant.
• Reinforcement promotes positive behaviour.

Contiguity and Contingency

• Contiguity: Consequence immediately follows behaviour.
• Contingency: Consequence consistently linked to behaviour.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after set # of responses.
• Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after random # of responses.
• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a set amount of time.
• Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after random amounts of time.

Operant Conditioning and Shaping Behaviours

• Identify desired behaviour.
• Reinforce successive approximations.
• Increase expectations gradually.
• Remove reinforcement for earlier steps.

Placebo Effect

• Works through operant conditioning, reinforcing treatment belief via improvement (positive reinforcement) and symptom relief (negative reinforcement).

Biological Preparedness in Animal Training

• Easier to learn behaviours due to evolutionary adaptations.
• Leverage natural tendencies for effective training.

behaviour Modification Techniques

1. Reinforcement (Positive & Negative)
2. Punishment (Positive & Negative)
3. Shaping
4. Modelling
5. Extinction
6. Token Economy
7. Behavioural Contracts
8. Systematic Desensitisation
9. Cognitive Behavioural Techniques
10. Differential Reinforcement

Observational Learning

Learning Through Observation vs. Operant Conditioning

1. Learning Through Observation (Social Learning)
   • Learning by watching others.
2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
   • Learning via direct rewards/punishments.

Factors That Influence Observational Learning

1. Attention: Focus on the model.
2. Retention: Remember the behaviour.
3. Reproduction: Capability to perform.
4. Motivation: Desire to imitate.

Characteristics of the Role Model

1. Gender: Imitate same-gender models.
2. Social Status: High-status more influential.
3. Relationship: Closer relationships lead to imitation.
4. Consequences: Positive consequences increase imitation; negative reduce it.

Evidence for Mirror Cells

• Mirror neurons fire when performing/observing actions.
• Role in imitation, empathy, and social learning; deficits may cause learning challenges.

Advantages of Behavioural Counts

1. Objective Measurement
2. Clear Data Analysis
3. Replicability
4. behavioural Focus
5. Establishing Causal Links
6. Real-world Applications

Differences in Learning

Characteristics of the Learner

1. Personal Characteristics
2. Academic Characteristics
3. Social/Emotional Characteristics
4. Cognitive Characteristics

Tailoring CBT

1. Personalising the Plan
2. Adjusting Techniques
3. Pacing the Therapy
4. Adapting Communication
5. Client Preferences and Strengths
6. Co-occurring Disorders
7. Life Circumstances
8. Empathy and Flexibility