Biology EOC Review

Scientific Theory & Scientific Theory vs. Law (SC.912.N.3.1/ SC.912.N.3.4)

  • Independent Variable: The variable that is changed in the experiment.

  • Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured; it depends on the independent variable.

  • Control Variable: Variable that stays the same.

  • Controlled Experiment: An experiment in which only one variable is changed at a time.

  • Hypothesis: An educated guess (If…, then…).

The Practice of Science (SC.912.N.1.1)

  • Eight Characteristics of Living Things:

    • Made up of cells

    • Reproduce

    • Grow & develop

    • Obtain & use energy

    • Evolve

    • Contain genetic material

    • Maintain stable internal environment

    • Respond to stimuli

  • Homeostasis: The ability of an organism to maintain its internal environment despite conditions in the external environment.

Domains & Kingdoms (SC.912.L.15.6)

  • Seven Levels of Classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

  • Binomial Nomenclature: Two-word naming system – Genus species

  • Cellular and Nutritional Characteristics:

    • Bacteria – Prokaryotic / Heterotrophic / Unicellular

    • Protists – Eukaryotic / Heterotrophic / Unicellular

    • Plants – Eukaryotic / Autotrophic / Multicellular

    • Animals – Eukaryotic / Heterotrophic / Multicellular

Dichotomous Key & Viruses

  • Dichotomous Key: A tool for identifying organisms based on their characteristics.

    • Example key:

    1. a. The animal has eight legs …Arachnida

    2. b. The animal has six legs … go to 2

    3. a. The animal has spots … Coleoptera

    4. b. The animal has stripes … Lepisiota

  • Organism Identification:

    • Organism A (8 legs): Arachnida

    • Organism B (6 legs, spots): Coleoptera

    • Organism C (6 legs, stripes): Lepisiota

  • Primitive Organisms: Ray-finned fish is identified as most primitive from the tree.

  • Similar DNA: Organisms that branch from a point closest to each other have the most similar DNA.

  • Viruses: Nonliving entities because they contain DNA but cannot reproduce without a host.

  • Comparison of Viruses and Bacteria:

    • Bacteria: Living, prokaryotes, unicellular.

    • Viruses: Non-living, DNA enclosed in a capsid, much smaller than bacteria.

Macromolecules (SC.912.L.18.1)

  • Carbohydrates:

    • Elements: C, H, O

    • Building Blocks: Monosaccharide

    • Function: Main source of energy, structural support for plants

    • Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Starch

  • Lipids:

    • Elements: C, H

    • Building Blocks: Fatty acid & glycerol

    • Function: Store energy, compose cell membranes, chemical messengers (steroids)

    • Examples: Fats, Oils, Waxes

  • Proteins:

    • Elements: C, H, O, N

    • Building Blocks: Amino Acids

    • Function: Regulate cell processes, form bones & muscle, transport, fight off disease

    • Examples: Enzymes, Antibodies

  • Nucleic Acids:

    • Elements: C, H, O, N, P

    • Building Blocks: Nucleotides

    • Function: Stores genetic material

    • Examples: DNA, RNA

Enzymes (SC.912.L.18.11)

  • Function: Acts as a biological catalyst, speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.

  • Factors Affecting Enzymes:

    • Temperature: Enzymes work best at body temperature. Higher temperatures can denature the protein.

    • pH: Unsuitable pH levels can cause enzymes to denature.

Properties of Water (SC.912.L.18.12)

  • Importance: Universal solvent, necessary for photosynthesis, regulates body temperature.

  • Polarity: Water molecules share electrons unevenly, resulting in partial positive and negative charges, enabling it to dissolve many substances.

  • Surface Tension: Attraction between water molecules allowing insects to float.

pH Scale

  • Acids: pH BELOW 7

  • Bases: pH ABOVE 7

  • Neutral Solutions: pH of 7

Cell Theory (SC.912.L.14.1)

  • Components:

    • All living things are composed of one or more cells.

    • Cells are the basic unit of structure & function in all life.

    • Cells come from other cells.

Cell Structure/Function (SC.912.L.14.2)

  • Lipid Bilayer: Double layer of lipids that make up a cell membrane.

  • Protein Channels: Help move bigger molecules through the cell membrane.

  • Carbohydrates: Necessary for cellular respiration.

Organelles and Their Functions

  • Nucleus: Controls the functions of the cell.

  • Ribosomes: Make proteins.

  • Cell membrane: Regulate what enters and leaves the cell.

  • Cell wall: Provides protection and support for plant cells.

  • Mitochondria: Creates energy for the cell by breaking down sugar.

  • Vacuoles: Stores water, sugar, and other molecules for the cell.

  • Lysosome: Cleans up waste in the cell.

  • Golgi apparatus: Sorts and packages molecules for transport around the cell.

  • Chloroplast: Creates energy for plant cells by converting sunlight into usable energy.

  • Endoplasmic reticulum: “Highway” for transport in the cell.

Membrane Permeability & Transport

  • Semi-permeable Membrane: Membrane that allows some things to pass while others cannot.

  • Osmosis: Water moves from an area of HIGH to an area of LOW concentration.

  • Diffusion: Molecules move from an area of HIGH to an area of LOW concentration.

Comparing Cells (SC.912.L.14.3)

  • Cell Types:

    • Eukaryotic: have a nucleus, more complex, organelles.

    • Prokaryotic: no nucleus, simple, no membrane-bound organelles.

  • Plant vs Animal Cells:

    • Plant: Cell wall, one large vacuole, chloroplast, cell plate.

    • Animal: Many small vacuoles, lysosomes, centrioles.

    • Both: Nucleus, ER, golgi apparatus, cell membrane, mitochondria.

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration (SC.912.L.18.7/ SC.912.L.18.8/ SC.912.L.18.9)

  • Photosynthesis: Purpose: To produce glucose.

    • Formula: CO<em>2+H</em>2O+Energy→C<em>6H</em>12O<em>6+O</em>2CO<em>2 + H</em>2O + Energy \rightarrow C<em>6H</em>{12}O<em>6 + O</em>2

    • Reactants: carbon dioxide, water.

    • Products: glucose, oxygen.

  • Cellular Respiration: Purpose: To make Energy.

    • Formula: C<em>6H</em>12O<em>6+O</em>2→CO<em>2+H</em>2O+EnergyC<em>6H</em>{12}O<em>6 + O</em>2 \rightarrow CO<em>2 + H</em>2O + Energy

    • Reactants: glucose, oxygen, water.

    • Products: energy, carbon dioxide, water.

  • Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration: Aerobic uses oxygen and creates more ATP than anaerobic which does not use oxygen and creates less ATP.

  • Location:

    • Cellular Respiration occurs in both Plants and Animals.

    • Photosynthesis occurs in Plants.

  • Relationship: The formulas are reversed and yet interconnected. The plants provide the oxygen needed for cellular respiration, and the animals provide the carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis. Plants undergo both cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis Factors

  • Factors Affecting Rate: Light intensity, Color of light, amount of water, temperature, amount of carbon dioxide.

The Cell Cycle & Mitosis (SC.912.L.16.14/ SC.912.L.16.16/ SC.912.L.16.17/ SC.912.L.16.8)

  • DNA Replication: S phase during Interphase.

  • G1 and G2 Periods:

    • G1: cell growth

    • G2: cell prepares to divide

  • Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides.

  • Mitosis Stages:

    1. Interphase

    2. Prophase

    3. Metaphase

    4. Anaphase

    5. Telophase

  • Mitosis vs. Meiosis:Mitosis: Asexual reproduction, 2N parent cell, 2N daughter cells, 1 cell division, 2 daughter cells, DNA replication in Interphase.
    Meiosis: Sexual reproduction, 2N parent cell, N daughter cells, 2 cell divisions, 4 daughter cells, DNA replication in Interphase.

Transcription/ Translation (SC.912.L.16.5)

  • DNA Components: Black pentagons: Deoxyribose sugar

    • PO4’s: Phosphate groups

  • DNA Bonds: Hydrogen bonds hold the two strands of DNA together.

  • Transcription: Make RNA from DNA; in the nucleus.

  • Codon: Group of 3 bases that codes for an amino acid.

  • Translation: Make protein from RNA; in the cytoplasm at the ribosome.

  • Protein Bonds: Peptide bond holds the amino acids together in the protein that is formed.

  • Protein Synthesis: DNA’s coding and directing the process of making proteins.

DNA vs. RNA

  • DNA:

    • Sugars: Deoxyribose

    • Bases: A, T, C, G

    • Number of Strands: 2 strands

    • Location: Nucleus

    • Function: Stores genetic info

  • RNA:

    • Sugars: Ribose

    • Bases: A, U, C, G

    • Number of Strands: 1 stand

    • Location: Nucleus/Cytoplasm

    • Function: Transports genetic info

DNA Replication & Mutations (SC.912.L.16.3/ SC.912.L.16.4)

  • DNA Replication: DNA is copied; DNA unzips, one strand serves as the template and creates 2 new DNA molecules.

  • End Result: Two new molecules – made up of one original strand and one new strand.

  • Mutation: Change in genetic sequence.

  • Point Mutation: Substitutes one nucleotide for another.

  • Frameshift Mutations:

    • Insertions: extra base pairs are inserted into a new place in the DNA.

    • Deletions: a section of DNA is lost or deleted.

Mendel’s Laws/Genetics (SC.912.L.16.1)

  • Law of Segregation: During the production of gametes, the factors (gene/allele) separate so that the offspring acquires one factor from each parent.

  • Law of Independent Assortment: Factors for different characteristics are distributed to gametes independently (seed color and flower color are unrelated).

Patterns of Inheritance (SC.912.L.16.2)

  • Dominant: Written as a capital letter, this trait will show.

  • Recessive: Written as a lower case letter; only will show if two recessive alleles are present.

  • Homozygous: SAME alleles; TT or tt.

  • Heterozygous: DIFFERENT alleles; Tt.

  • Genotype: Letter combination that show the genes; TT, Tt, tt.

  • Phenotype: Physical description; tall or short.

  • Incomplete Dominance: When 2 or more alleles influence the phenotype (red+ white flower = pink flower).

  • Co-dominance: When 2 alleles influence a genotype in which both traits pop up (like spots on a brown coat).

Genetics Problems

  • Monohybrid Cross: Two heterozygous tall plants (Tt) are crossed. If tall is dominant over short, what are the expected phenotypic results?

    • Tt x Tt → 75% Tall, 25% short

  • Incomplete Dominance: Red (RR) and white (WW) flowers are crossed, pink (RW) flowers are produced. What is expected when two pink flowers cross?

    • RW x RW → 25% red, 50% pink, 25% white

  • Blood Type (Multiple Allele/ co-dominant): Mr. Jones: IAIAI^A I^A

    • Mrs. Jones: IAIBI^A I^B

    • 50% chance of a child with Type A blood.

  • Dihybrid Crosses:

    • Dominant allele for tall plants = D

    • Recessive allele for dwarf plants = d

    • Dominant allele for purple flowers = W

    • Recessive allele for white flowers = w

    • Cross a parent 1 (DdWW) with parent 2 (ddww).

    • Probability of producing tall plants with purple flowers? 50%

    • Possible genotypes for producing dwarf plants with purple flowers? ddWW or ddWw

Sex-Linked Traits

  • Males are more likely to express a sex linked trait: Most sex-linked traits are on the X chromosome, males only need one affected gene to get the trait.

  • Color blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait: A mother with normal color vision and a color blind father have a color blind daughter. How?

    • Mom would have to be a carrier and Dad would automatically pass that trait to his daughter.

Pedigree Analysis

  • Symbols:

    • Circle: females

    • Square: males

    • Colored: affected (bb)

    • Open: unaffected (Bb or BB)

  • Genotype Determination:

    • I-1 (affected): bb

    • II-4 (unaffected): Bb

  • Probability Calculation: II-7 (bb) had children with III-3 (bb), what are the chances that their childen will be affected?

    • bb x bb -> 100% chance of being affected

Evidence for Evolution/ Natural Selection/ Origin of Life (SC.912.L.15.1/ SC.912.L.16.13/ SC.912.L.16.8)

  • Natural Selection: “Survival of the Fittest” - MOST fit will survive and reproduce and the least fit die or have few offspring.

  • Evidence for Evolution:

    • Direct Evidence: evidence for evolution that one can visually observe over time. Ex. Peppered moths/ bacteria and antibiotics.

    • Indirect Evidence: evidence for evolution based on the history of the earth. Ex fossils

  • Structures:

    • Homologous: same structure, different function (whale fin/ human hand) evidence for evolution

    • Analogous: different structure, same function (fly wing & bat wing) not evidence for evolution

  • Adaptation vs. Acclimation:

    • Adapt: mutation that makes one better fit for survival (change in DNA)

    • Acclimate: to get “used to” an environment (no change in DNA)

  • Definitions:

    • Cladistics: classification of organisms based on shared derived characteristics.

    • Phylogeny: the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms.

    • Hominid: defines early humans that can walk upright.

    • Reproductive Isolation: the inability of formerly interbreeding organisms to produce offspring. Can lead to new species.

    • Speciation: formation of a new species.

Plants (SC.912.L.14.7)

  • Vascular vs. Non-vascular Plants: Vascular plants have roots stems and leaves, non-vascular plants do not. Vascular ex: Orange Tree. Non-vascular ex: Moss

  • Organs of Vascular Plant:

    • Roots: collect water and minerals & anchor the plant

    • Stems: transport water up the plant and food down the plant

    • Leaves: organs of photosynthesis

  • Pollination:

    • Transfer of pollen from the anther to a stigma of a flower of the same species.

    • Cross pollination: Transfer of pollen from the anther to a stigma between 2 different plants of the same species.

    • Self-pollination: Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma within the same plant.

  • Cell Plate Function: Aids the plant cell during cytokinesis of mitosis.

  • Stomata Function: Work with guard cells to control water loss and allow for gas exchange in the leaf

  • Xylem: Tube within the stem that carries water up the plant

  • Phloem: Tube within the stem that carries food down the plant

Ecology

  • Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors:

    • Biotic – living factors (food, predators, competitors)

    • Abiotic – non living factors (sunlight, temperature, water, pH)

  • Symbiotic Relationships:

    • Mutualism – both benefit (bee and a flower)

    • Commensalism – one benefits, the other is unaffected (whale & barnacle)

    • Parasitism – one benefits, the other is harmed (tick and a dog)

    • Predator/prey – predator hunts prey

    • Competition – two organisms fighting for similar resources

  • Carrying Capacity: The maximum amount of individuals in a population that the surrounding environment can sustain

  • Photosynthesis and Energy: Plants use photosynthesis to make their own food, other organisms then rely on plants for their food, and other animals then rely on those herbivores for food.

  • Decomposers Role: They break down matter so it can be recycled back into the environment

  • Trophic Level: A pyramid of levels of energy based on a food chain…starting with autotrophs at the base and the apex predator at the top.

  • Food Web:

    • Ultimate Source of Energy: Sun

    • Producers: Oak tree – blossoms, nuts, leaves

    • Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Bees, deer, mice, rabbit, insects

    • Secondary Consumers: Wolf, Bear, toad, birds, red fox, skunk

    • Apex Level Consumers: Bear

  • Trophic Level Pyramid Example:

    • Food chain: leaves → insects → birds → red fox → bear

    • Most energy: At the bottom – leaves

    • Least energy: At the top – bear

  • Energy Transfer: It is used for growth/reproduction, and life by the previous organism.

Human Anatomy & Physiology

  • Brain Diagrams: Cerebrum #3

    • Cerebellum #2

    • Frontal lobe of the cerebrum located at #3

    • Temporal lobe of the cerebrum is located at #4

  • Drop of Blood flow through the heart: 1. Vena Cava → 2. Right Atrium → 3. Right Ventricle → 4. Pulmonary Artery → 5. Lungs → 6. Pulmonary Vein → 7. Left Atrium → 8. Left Ventricle → 9. Aorta

  • True or False (If false, note the correct answer):

    *T A person with blood type AB is a universal receiver.

    *T After egg and sperm meet, the “baby” is referred to as a zygote.

    *F (1st Trimester) During the third trimester the fetus’ heart begins to beat.

    *F (away from the heart) Arteries pump blood to the heart.

    *T A vaccine is administered prior to infection.

    *F (Antibiotics treat bacterial infections) Antibiotics can be used to treat viral infections.

    *T The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord.

  • Hormones and Gametes Production: Testes: Sperm/Testosterone

    • Ovaries: Oocyte (Ovum)/Estrogen & Progesterone

  • Pregnancy Trimester Last: