Social Psychology Account Proximate Causation

Outline

1. Bystander Effect

2. The Altruism-Egoism Debate

   • Empathy-Altruism Model

   • Negative State Relief Model

Bystander Effect

• Quote: "It is a denial of justice not to stretch out a helping hand to the fallen." ~ Seneca

The Bad Apple?

• Overview: Why did no one help in emergencies?

• Explanation by Latane and Darley (1970):

  • Ambiguity: Uncertainty about whether help is needed

  • Evaluation Apprehension: Fear of negative judgment from others

  • Pluralistic Ignorance: Assumption that if no one else is helping, help is not needed

  • Diffusion of Responsibility: Reduction in individual feeling of responsibility as the number of witnesses increases

  • Notable case: Kitty Genovese murder, where witnesses did not intervene

Pluralistic Ignorance

• Latane & Rodin’s (1969) "Woman in Distress" Experiment

  • Method:

    • Independent Variable (IV): Composition of witnesses (witness makeup)

    • Participant alone

    • Participant with a stranger

    • Participant with an impassive confederate

    • Participant with a friend

    • Dependent Variable (DV): Percentage of trials in which the woman in distress is offered help within 2 minutes

Woman in Distress Experiment Results

• Graphical Representation:

  • Assistance provided within 2 minutes by group makeup

  • Alone: 60%

  • Stranger: 40%

  • Confederate: 20%

  • Friend: 60%

Diffusion of Responsibility

• Latane & Darley (1968) "Seizure" Experiment

  • Method:

    • IV: Number of perceived witnesses to the seizure (0, 2, or 4 witnesses)

    • DV: Percentage of trials where the participant helped within 2 minutes after the start of the seizure

Lab Layout

• Configuration:

  • Corridor Format

Seizure Experiment Results

• Graphical Representation of results:

  • % of trials in which participant helps based on number of witnesses present

  • None: 80%

  • Two: 60%

  • Four: 20%

  • Note: All differences are statistically significant

How Do We Know?

• Woman in Distress

  • Why it tests pluralistic ignorance:

    • Ambiguity of the event

    • Ability to communicate

    • Makeup of witnesses

• Seizure Experiment

  • Why it tests diffusion of responsibility:

    • Ambiguity of the event

    • Ability to communicate

    • Makeup of witnesses

Latane & Darley’s 5-Step Bystander Intervention Model

1. Notice the Event: Awareness of what is happening

2. Interpret the Event as an Emergency: Recognizing the urgency of the situation

3. Decide that You Have a Personal Responsibility to Help: Feeling compelled to act

4. Decide What You Should Do to Help: Planning the action, including assessing one’s ability to implement it

5. Make a Conscious Decision to Help: Taking the step to act

Does This Model Suggest Ways to Increase Helping?

• Strategies to enhance intervention:

  • Reduce Ambiguity: Clear signals when help is required

  • Clarify Responsibility: Explicit assignment of responsibility, or making it clear that help is needed

  • Educational Interventions: Take social psychology courses (Beaman et al., 1978)

50 Years of Bystander Effect Research

• Fischer et al. (2011) Meta-Analysis:

  • Finding: The bystander effect remains robust over time

  • Notable exceptions: Effect can be smaller or even reversed in dangerous emergencies

• Real-World Application:

  • Example: Strangers saving a man from a burning car on a highway (April 2024)

    • Reference: Video link from Washington Post

  • Canadian example from two years ago available here: https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/video/1.6514287

Proposed Mechanisms from 50 Years of Research

• Suggested reasons for the persistence of the bystander effect:

  • Lowered Ambiguity: Clarity in the perceived emergency can mobilize action

  • Heightened Arousal: Increased emotional states can trigger intervention

  • Others as a Source of Physical Support: The presence of others can provide safety and encouragement to act