Comprehensive Notes: Contemporary South Asia
Comprehensive Notes: Contemporary South Asia
What is South Asia?
The region usually includes: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The mighty Himalayas to the north and the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal surrounding the peninsular south provide natural insularity, contributing significantly to the region's linguistic, social, and cultural distinctiveness. While the northern and southern boundaries are clearly delineated by these formidable natural barriers, the eastern and western boundaries are often more fluid, leading to ongoing historical and cultural exchanges.
Afghanistan and Myanmar are often discussed in the context of the region due to their geographic proximity and historical ties, though they are generally not considered part of the core region. China is an important economic and strategic player, especially concerning border issues and infrastructure development (e.g., through its Belt and Road Initiative), but it is not culturally or geographically categorized as part of South Asia proper.
South Asia stands for immense diversity in every sense—from its varied topographies and climates to its multitude of languages, religions, and ethnic groups—yet it constitutes one significant geo-political space characterized by shared historical experiences and interconnected challenges.
Political systems vary considerably across the region. Sri Lanka and India have maintained relatively stable democratic systems since gaining independence, characterized by regular elections and multi-party competition. Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced cycles of both civilian and military rule, with democratic periods interrupted by coups; however, Bangladesh has largely operated as a democracy in the post-Cold War period. Nepal transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a federal democratic republic in the late 2000s after a decade-long civil conflict and significant popular movements. Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy in 2008, voluntarily transitioning under the leadership of its monarch. The Maldives, formerly a Sultanate until 1968 and then a republic, embraced a multi-party democracy which was formally introduced in June 2005, with the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) demonstrating significant dominance in the 2018 elections.
A key question for the region’s long-term trajectory revolves around the challenge of whether democracy can genuinely deepen its roots and effectively coexist with regional cooperation initiatives and robust economic development, particularly given the large populations and prevalent poverty.
Demography, development, and democracy in South Asia (context for the big five countries)
Across the region, a recent and notable shift toward accepting democracy as a norm has been observed in several countries, including Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, indicating a broader regional embrace of democratic values despite historical volatility.
A comprehensive survey conducted across the five largest countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) shows strong citizen support for democracy and representative institutions. This finding notably challenges the conventional notion that high levels of prosperity are a prerequisite for democracy to flourish. Key demographic and development data points (primarily from SDSA State of Democracy in South Asia, 2007, and updated with UNDP data):
Life expectancy at birth (2017): World average approx. 72.2 \text{ years}$; Developing regions, including South Asia, averaged approximately 69.3 \text{ years}$. Country-specific examples indicate: Bangladesh ≈ , India ≈ , Nepal ≈ , Pakistan ≈ , Sri Lanka ≈ .
Adult literacy rate (ages 15+): World average approx. 82.1 \text{ percent}$; South Asia averaged approximately 68.7 \text{ percent}$. Country data: Bangladesh ≈ 72.8 \text{ percent}$; India ≈ 69.3 \text{ percent}$; Nepal ≈ 59.6 \text{ percent}$; Pakistan ≈ 57.0 \text{ percent}$; Sri Lanka ≈ 91.2 \text{ percent}$.
Gross enrolment ratio (Secondary): World average approx. 79 \text{ percent}$; South Asia averaged approximately 71 \text{ percent}$. Country data: Bangladesh ≈ 69 \text{ percent}$; India ≈ 75 \text{ percent}$; Nepal ≈ 71 \text{ percent}$; Pakistan ≈ 46 \text{ percent}$; Sri Lanka ≈ 98 \text{ percent}$.
GDP per capita (2011 PPP $): World average approx. ; South Asia averaged approximately . Country data: Bangladesh ≈ ; India ≈ ; Nepal ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ ; Sri Lanka ≈ .
Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births): World average approx. ; South Asia averaged approximately . Country data: Bangladesh ≈ ; India ≈ ; Nepal ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ ; Sri Lanka ≈ .
TB cases (per 100,000 people): World average approx. ; Sri Lanka ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ ; India ≈ ; Bangladesh ≈ ; Nepal ≈ .
Population living below income poverty line (PPP $1.90/day, 2006-2016): World and South Asia figures reflect substantial poverty but also illustrate ongoing improvements. Bangladesh ≈ , India ≈ , Nepal ≈ , Pakistan ≈ , Sri Lanka ≈ not applicable in this exact metric (due to higher development and different poverty lines).
HDI ranks (approximate within 2018 UNDP values): Sri Lanka consistently ranks highest among the five with an HDI value around 0.76 (placing it in the high human development category); India around 0.64 (medium human development), ranking approximately 130; Bangladesh around 0.61, ranking approximately 136; Nepal around 0.57, ranking approximately 149; Pakistan around 0.56, ranking approximately 150 (illustrative from the cited table and indicative of development disparities in the region).
The five big South Asian countries and their democratic trajectories
Pakistan (military and democracy):
After gaining independence in 1947, Pakistan struggled to solidify its constitutional framework. Its first constitution was framed, but the country soon experienced its first military coup in 1958 under Ayub Khan, followed by Yahya Khan's rule. The most significant crisis, the 1971 Bangladesh crisis, led to the brutal liberation war and the separation of East Pakistan, forming Bangladesh.
From 1971–1977, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's civilian government initiated significant reforms but faced internal unrest. In 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq staged a coup, initiating a long period of military rule and Islamization policies (1977-1988). A pro-democracy movement gained momentum in 1982, eventually leading to the return of civilian rule in 1988 under Benazir Bhutto. The 1990s were marked by alternating civilian governments (led by Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif) and persistent military influence, often characterized by political instability, corruption allegations, and frequent dissolution of elected assemblies. In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf seized power in a bloodless coup, later becoming elected president in 2001. Civilian rule eventually returned in 2008 following popular protests and international pressure.
Core issues pertaining to Pakistan's democratic development include a persistent imbalance in civil-military relations, challenges in ensuring civilian governance effectiveness, significant internal and external security challenges (including terrorism), its complex alignment with Western powers (especially the US) on counterterrorism, and the military's pervasive role in national politics and economy.
Overall: Democracy in Pakistan is not fully consolidated; while strong pro-democracy sentiment exists among the populace, the army remains an exceptionally powerful and influential institution, often seen as the ultimate arbiter of national affairs. The US and other Western powers have at various times supported military rule in Pakistan primarily for strategic reasons, particularly concerning regional security, counterterrorism efforts, and nuclear non-proliferation.
Bangladesh (democracy after independence):
Bangladesh achieved independence in 1971 after a nine-month liberation war against Pakistan. However, its early years were tumultuous, marked by political assassinations, including that of its founding father Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1975. From 1979 to the early 1990s, the country experienced military rule under subsequent regimes, including those of Ziaur Rahman and Hussain Muhammad Ershad. In 1991, a widespread pro-democracy movement led to the return of representative democracy through multi-party elections. Since then, despite periods of political unrest, strong anti-incumbency sentiment, and deep political rivalries, democracy in Bangladesh has shown greater stability, marked by regular competitive elections and a vibrant civil society.
The country’s democratic consolidation is characterized by the peaceful transfer of power, regular elections, and the prominent role of civil society organizations. However, it faces challenges arising from intense political competition primarily between two major parties, the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), often leading to confrontational politics and governance issues.
Nepal (monarchy to democracy):
In 1990, a significant democratic movement successfully ended the absolute monarchy, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and a multi-party democracy with a new constitution. The 1990s saw a period of political experimentation and shifting coalition governments.
From 1996–2002, the country was plunged into a brutal civil conflict due to a Maoist insurgency that sought to overthrow the monarchy and establish a communist republic. In 2002, amidst political instability and the ongoing insurgency, the king dissolved parliament and assumed direct control. A powerful pro-democracy movement, comprising a Seven-Party Alliance (SPA) and the Maoists, united in 2006 against the monarchy. This movement led to the king's agreement to restore parliament and usher in a peace process. In 2008, the monarchy was formally abolished, and Nepal was declared a democratic republic. A new constitution, aimed at establishing a federal democratic system and addressing issues of ethnicity and regional autonomy, was finally promulgated in 2015.
The current transition involves the complex integration of Maoist former combatants and political forces into a new governance framework, alongside addressing long-standing ethnic, regional, and social demands through federalism.
Sri Lanka (ethnic conflict and democracy):
Sri Lanka has maintained an uninterrupted democratic tradition since its independence in 1948, characterized by regular elections and peaceful transfers of power. However, it faced a devastating and protracted major ethnic conflict with Tamil separatist movements, notably the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), which began significantly in the 1980s. The conflict stemmed from grievances of the Tamil minority regarding perceived discrimination by the Sinhala-Buddhist majority and demands for a separate state.
In 1987, India intervened via the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, which aimed to establish a provincial council system for Tamils and deploy the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to oversee the disarmament of militant groups. The IPKF withdrew in 1989 after facing strong resistance and casualties. The conflict continued intensely until the LTTE's military defeat in May 2009.
Despite enduring nearly three decades of civil war, Sri Lanka has achieved significant economic growth and high human development indicators. Post-conflict challenges include addressing issues of governance, reconciliation between ethnic communities, fostering transitional justice, and managing its substantial foreign debt.
Bhutan (constitutional monarchy):
Bhutan transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy in 2008 under the visionary leadership of its king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who initiated reforms towards democracy. This transition introduced multi-party democracy with regular elections, showcasing a unique top-down approach to democratization in the region. The 2018 elections in the Maldives, which saw the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) dominate, further illustrate the varied and evolving democratic trajectories across South Asia.
Maldives (republic to multi-party system):
The Maldives remained a Sultanate until 1968 when it became a republic. A significant political shift occurred between 2005 and 2008, when a multi-party system was solidified after decades of single-party rule and political reforms. The 2018 elections, in particular, highlighted the dynamic party landscape and ongoing challenges related to democratic governance, human rights, and the rule of law in the small island nation.
India’s neighbourhood and regional dynamics
India’s relations with its neighbors are characterized by a multifaceted mix of cooperation, strategic competition, and persistent friction. These dynamics are profoundly influenced by shared geography, India's larger size and economic weight, security concerns (including cross-border issues), economic interests, and the increasing influence of external powers.
Bangladesh (river waters and security):
Significant disputes persist over the sharing of transboundary river waters, particularly the Ganga and Brahmaputra, which are vital for both nations' agriculture and economies. Concerns about illegal immigration from Bangladesh into India remain a sensitive issue. While border management and mutual trust are ongoing challenges, bilateral cooperation has seen improvements in areas such as disaster management, environmental issues, and notably, the successful exchange of enclaves in 2015, which resolved a long-standing territorial dispute.
Bangladesh is considered a key component of India’s Look East/Act East policy, aiming to strengthen India's economic and strategic ties with Southeast Asian countries via enhanced connectivity, including transit routes through Myanmar.
Nepal:
India and Nepal share a unique 'special relationship' characterized by open borders, allowing visa-free travel and work for their citizens. Despite this, periodic trade disputes, such as the 1989 trade blockade, have strained relations. Concerns in Nepal often revolve around India’s perceived oversized influence in its internal affairs, issues related to border governance, and disputes over the utilization of shared river waters for hydroelectric power. Nepal’s growing economic and strategic ties with China, particularly in infrastructure development and trade, further complicate the delicate regional balance and India’s traditional leverage.
Security concerns for India include the potential spillover effects of Maoist influence from Nepal into India's internal security landscape, especially in states bordering Nepal.
Bhutan:
India and Bhutan share exceptionally close ties, forming a crucial strategic alliance. India is Bhutan’s largest development partner and a vital security ally, consistently supporting large hydroelectric projects (e.g., Tala Hydroelectric Project), which are key revenue generators for Bhutan. Indian policy plays a significant role in ensuring stability in India's northeastern states by securing its border with Bhutan.
Maldives:
Relations with the Maldives involve close security cooperation, especially after incidents like the 1988 coup attempt where India intervened to restore stability (Operation Cactus). India continues to provide significant assistance in defense, security cooperation, and development projects. While generally strong, relations can be sensitive due to internal Maldivian politics and its increasing engagement with China, creating a delicate balancing act for India’s influence in the Indian Ocean region.
Sri Lanka:
Despite historical Tamil grievances and the intense LTTE conflict, Sri Lanka has made remarkable progress in governance and economic development. India's military involvement from 1987–1990 (IPKF) and ongoing diplomatic engagement reflect a complex balance between managing regional security concerns (e.g., refugee flows, strategic maritime routes) and fostering strong economic ties through trade and investment. India remains a major trading partner and investor in Sri Lanka.
India’s broader regional role:
India is undeniably central to the region due to its vast geography, massive population, and significant economic power, often leading to perceptions of dominance by its smaller neighbors. This 'big brother' image can sometimes lead to diplomatic challenges and mistrust.
Smaller neighbors frequently fear regional dominance and seek to diversify their foreign relations, sometimes bringing in external powers. Conversely, India aims to avoid being exploited by external rivalries or having its security interests compromised, striving to maintain stable and cooperative ties within its immediate neighborhood.
Regional disputes are manifold, including inter-state migration, complex river water sharing agreements, and cross-border insurgencies. Many of these issues remain unresolved due to deep-seated mutual distrust, competing national interests, and the lack of robust regional dispute resolution mechanisms.
India–Pakistan conflicts and regional security architecture
Kashmir and territorial disputes: The most enduring and volatile conflict between India and Pakistan stems from the unresolved status of Jammu & Kashmir, leading to multiple post-Partition wars (1947–48, 1965) and remaining a central issue after the 1971 Bangladesh War. The Line of Control (LOC) roughly divides Indian Jammu & Kashmir from Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (known as Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan by Pakistan).
Strategic issues: Other flashpoints include the control of the Siachen Glacier, the world's highest battlefield, and the dispute over Sir Creek (a tidal estuary). The nuclearization of both countries in the 1990s, marked by India’s Pokhran tests and Pakistan’s Chagai Hills tests, fundamentally altered the strategic landscape. While nuclear deterrence has theoretically lowered the probability of full-scale conventional wars, it has kept mutual suspicion exceptionally high and introduced new risks of escalation, even with limited testing.
Cross-border terrorism and intelligence operations:
India consistently accuses Pakistan’s state and non-state actors of actively supporting militancy and terrorism against India, including alleged support for Khalistani elements (Sikh separatists) and Islamist militant groups in Kashmir and other parts of India. Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) is frequently alleged to be involved in covert campaigns aimed at destabilizing India's northeastern regions.
Pakistan counters these allegations by stating that Indian security policies destabilize its provinces (e.g., Sindh, Balochistan) and claims India supports separatist movements. It also often uses the perceived threat of external aggression from India to justify its expansive security posture and military budget.
Indus Waters Treaty (1960): This is a landmark agreement brokered by the World Bank that scientifically divides the waters of the Indus River system between the two countries, largely allocating the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan. Remarkably, it has continued to function effectively despite multiple military conflicts between the two nations, serving as a testament to the power of international mediation. However, it remains a point of minor interpretation disputes (e.g., run-of-the-river hydroelectric projects by India).
Negotiations and proposals: Numerous dialogues, confidence-building measures (CBMs), and back-channel efforts have been attempted over decades to reduce the risk of war and normalize relations. Despite these efforts, there are ongoing difficulties in fully normalizing relations due to deep-seated strategic rivalries, historical grievances, and complex domestic political considerations on both sides. Both countries publicly emphasize the need for peace but remain constrained by their respective national security doctrines and internal political dynamics.
Regional peace and cooperation: SAARC and SAFTA
SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) began in 1985 as a multilateral platform explicitly designed for regional cooperation among South Asian nations across various sectors, including economic, social, and cultural development.
SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) was signed in 2004 and became effective from 1 January 2006. Its primary objective is to lower intra-regional tariffs and promote cross-border trade, thereby fostering greater economic integration across South Asia.
Challenges to SAARC:
Persistent political differences and deep-rooted security concerns significantly limit the progress and effectiveness of SAARC. Bilateral tensions, most notably between India and Pakistan, frequently spill over into multilateral settings, often paralyzing decision-making and preventing meaningful cooperation.
Some member states fear that SAFTA could disproportionately allow India to dominate regional markets due to its economic size, leading to protectionist sentiments. Others, however, see real and substantial economic benefits from enhanced regional trade and political cooperation, arguing it could unlock the region's vast economic potential.
Economic and people-to-people ties:
Efforts were made to enhance economic and cultural linkages, for example, bus routes and travel between India and Pakistan expanded for a period, alongside proposals for visa liberalization, aiming to increase people-to-people contact. However, recent geopolitical tensions have significantly reduced this momentum and reversed some progress.
There is an ongoing debate among policymakers and academics about whether increased trade or deeper people-to-people ties are more critical and effective for fostering lasting peace and stability in the region.
External powers influence:
China and the United States are major external actors with significant influence in South Asia. Sino-Indian rapprochement, particularly in economic ties, has strengthened trade and investment. However, China’s deepening strategic partnership with Pakistan (e.g., the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor) remains a frequent source of concern and strategic irritant for India, seen as an encirclement strategy.
The US role in the region has evolved significantly post-Cold War, engaging with both India and Pakistan on various fronts. The US often acts as a moderator in India–Pakistan dialogues, particularly in times of heightened tension. The large South Asian diasporas in the US and the region’s growing markets give South Asia considerable strategic importance for US foreign policy, trade, and security interests.
Key concepts, timelines, and theories to remember
Indus Waters Treaty (1960): A landmark water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank. Despite numerous conflicts, it has remarkably remained in force, demonstrating a functional mechanism for resource sharing.
SAARC timeline: Formed in 1985; SAFTA agreement signed in 2004; Afghanistan joined SAARC as the eighth member in 2007; the most recent SAARC Summit mentioned in the context took place in Kathmandu in 2014.
Economic integration vs. political integration: SAFTA primarily aims to reduce tariffs and promote economic linkages. A key theoretical debate revolves around the extent to which successful economic integration can or will translate into deeper political harmony and cooperation, especially in a region marked by profound political mistrust.
Democracy in the region: India and Sri Lanka possess longer, largely uninterrupted democratic traditions marked by regular elections and civilian rule. Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan have experienced more significant political volatility, including periods of military rule or monarchical control, but continue to exhibit strong democratic aspirations and ongoing reforms towards consolidation. The Maldives and Bhutan offer distinct models of transitions toward multi-party democracy, reflecting diverse pathways to political liberalization.
External powers in regional politics: The strategic China–Pakistan axis is a fundamental feature of the regional security architecture. The US plays a role as a moderator and strategic partner for different countries. The influence of large South Asian diasporas in shaping foreign policy, regional security, and economic dynamics is also a notable factor.
Ethnic and sectarian conflicts affecting regional stability: Key examples include the protracted civil war involving the LTTE in Sri Lanka; significant cross-border insurgencies affecting India’s internal security (e.g., in Kashmir and the Northeast); cross-border terrorism emanating from Pakistan; and various border disputes that continually create friction.
Important data points (selected)
Life expectancy (approximate, 2017) in South Asia:
Adult literacy rate (approximate, 2006–2016): South Asia ≈ 68.7 \text{ percent}$; Sri Lanka ≈ 91.2 \text{ percent}$; India ≈ 69.3 \text{ percent}$; Bangladesh ≈ 72.8 \text{ percent}$; Pakistan ≈ 57.0 \text{ percent}$; Nepal ≈ 59.6 \text{ percent}$.
GDP per capita (2011 PPP dollars): South Asia ≈ ; Sri Lanka ≈ ; India ≈ ; Bangladesh ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ ; Nepal ≈ .
Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births): South Asia ≈ ; Sri Lanka ≈ ; Bangladesh ≈ ; India ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ ; Nepal ≈ .
TB cases (per 100,000 people): South Asia ≈ ; Sri Lanka ≈ ; India ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ ; Bangladesh ≈ ; Nepal ≈ .
Population below $1.90/day (PPP): South Asia ≈ not uniform in all rows; Bangladesh ≈ ; India ≈ ; Nepal ≈ ; Pakistan ≈ $$6.1 \text{ percent}$.
HDI ranks (approximate snapshot): Sri Lanka ~76; India ~130; Bangladesh ~136; Nepal ~149; Pakistan ~150.
Quick study prompts (based on the chapter’s exercises)
Identify the country: political instability due to struggles among monarchists, pro-democracy groups, and extremists.
Identify a landlocked country with multi-party competition.
Identify the first country in the region to liberalise its economy.
Identify the country where the military prevailed in the military–democracy conflict.
Which country is centrally located and borders most other South Asian countries?
Which island country previously had a Sultan as head of state and is now a republic?
Identify a country with small savings and credit cooperatives contributing to poverty reduction.
Identify a landlocked monarchy country.
Exercises and classroom ideas
Divide the class into eight groups (one per country), assign country profiles, and have groups analyze contentious issues among South Asian countries.
Have groups select a bilateral or multilateral issue (e.g., Jammu and Kashmir, migrant issues between India and Bangladesh, or a multilateral issue like a free trade zone or terrorism).
Groups should examine government initiatives, reasons for failures in dispute resolution, and prepare negotiation proposals and counter-proposals within a time limit.
Emphasize linking negotiation outcomes to the real political situation in the region and discuss the importance of accommodating each other’s interests for peaceful coexistence.
Cartoon captions and media interpretation
The chapter includes cartoons that critique regional power dynamics and illustrate the dilemmas faced by leaders in balancing national interests with regional cooperation. Reflect on messages about India–Pakistan hegemony versus regional cooperation.
Self-check questions (select examples)
Why is SAARC often less successful than hoped? What are the main barriers to deeper economic and political integration?
Describe two major areas of cooperation and two major points of disagreement between India and Bangladesh.
How has external power involvement (China and the US) influenced bilateral relations in South Asia?
What are the main drivers of democracy in Nepal and Bangladesh since the 1990s, and what challenges remain?
Summarize the Indus Waters Treaty and its significance for India–Pakistan relations.