A Comprehensive History of High-Medieval England: From the Normans to the Deposition of Edward II

The Legacy of King Stephen's Reign and the Rise of the Hereditary Principle

• Stephen’s Mistakes and Information Deficits: King Stephen’s tenure was marked by political errors that cost him vital intelligence and support. His peremptory arrests of powerful magnates, such as Geoffrey de Mandeville, earl of Essex, and Ranulf, earl of Chester, compelled both to revolt upon their release. His refusal to accept homage from Baldwin de Redvers, earl of Devon, further alienated the southwest.

• The Baronial Lesson: The primary lesson of Stephen's reign was learned by the barons, who realized they required a strong, supportive king to resolve disputes that otherwise devolved into destructive private wars. During the closing decades of Henry I's reign, outright land confiscations were rare, and royal courts adjudicated most claims. In Stephen’s reign, however, civil strife deprived the aristocracy of an authoritative tribunal, leading barons to grab disputable land by force.

• Succession and the Treaty of Winchester: The Treaty of Winchester ($1153$) and the accession of Henry II marked a return to secure inheritances. Henry II's succession was unique for being based on hereditary right as the eldest grandson of Henry I, though it involved Stephen "adopting" Henry as his heir to resolve the conflict. Since that time, hereditary right based on primogeniture has governed English monarchical succession with very few exceptions.

The Character and Personality of Henry II

• A Vibrant Temperament: Henry II ($1154-1189$) was known for an intense, mercurial temperament, capable of shifting from sunshine to thunder in moments. Contemporaries described him as a fear-inspiring, peacekeeping monarch who was impulsive and overwhelming.

• Physical Appearance: He was characterized by a reddish, freckled complexion, a large round head, grey eyes that grew bloodshot in anger, a fiery countenance, and a harsh, cracked voice. His body was stocky and square, with a tendency toward fatness moderated by extreme exercise.

• Boundless Energy: Henry was perversely energetic, often refusing to sit down before or after dinner, forcing his court to stand until they were worn out. This contrasts with Henry I, who planned itineraries carefully; Henry II moved on absolute royal whims.

• Scholarly Interests: Despite his frantic movements, described by Peter of Blois as a "portrait of hell," Henry was the best-educated king since Alfred. He delighted in associate with scholars, engaging in daily discussions of difficult intellectual problems with learned clerics.

Military and Financial Reforms Under Henry II

• The Revitalization of Royal Authority: Henry set out immediately to reverse the anarchy of Stephen's reign by ordering the destruction of unlicensed castles and restricting new fortifications.

• Cartae Baronum ($1166$): This inquest required all tenants-in-chief to provide written statements regarding:

  1. The number of knights enfeoffed before the death of Henry I in $1135$.

  2. The number enfeoffed between $1135$ and $1166$.

  3. The degree to which enfeoffments fell short of knightly military quotas.

• Objectives of the Inquest: Henry intended to identify all knightly subvassals to secure their formal oaths of allegiance (similar to the Salisbury oaths of $1086$) and to increase taxes (scutage and aids) on those whose enfeoffments exceeded their quotas.

• The Shift in Finance: Under Stephen, the Geld system (the traditional land tax based on hidage) collapsed. After $1162$, Henry abandoned the land tax in favor of taxes assessed on knights' fees, such as:

  • Scutage: Charges applied when a tenant-in-chief was exempt from providing their full knightly quota for a campaign.

  • Aids: Customary payments for the knighting of the eldest son or the marriage of the eldest daughter.

  • Tallage: A new tax developed upon royal demesne estates and towns.

• Economic Implications: This shift narrowed the tax-paying public to more politically powerful men. While efficient because it targeted the wealthiest subjects, it made the government more dependent on the support of the aristocracy.

• Assize of Arms ($1181$): This reorganized military obligations based on wealth rather than hidage:

  • Owners of a knight’s fee: Required a shirt of chain mail, helmet, shield, and lance.

  • Freemen worth $16$ marks ($£10 \text{ 13s. 4d.}$, or $2,560$ silver pennies): Equipped as knights.

  • Freemen worth $10$ to $16$ marks: Required a coat of light mail, iron headpiece, and lance.

  • Lower categories: Required quilted coats, iron headpieces, and lances.

Henry II and the Creation of the English Common Law

• Judicial Expansion: The Treaty of Winchester channeled land disputes into royal courts. While not strictly impartial—kings often favored friends—the courts were remarkably speedy.

• Evolution of the Courts: For major magnates (e.g., the trial of Thomas Becket in $1164$ at Northampton), the king summoned a great council. For lesser men, pleas were heard by royal intimates traveling with the king. By the $1160s$, the exchequer court at Westminster began hearing non-revenue legal cases; by the $1190s$, this evolved into the Court of Common Bench.

• General Eyres: Beginning in $1176$, teams of royal justices toured the countryside. Unlike Henry I's justices, who merely presided over shire courts, Henry II's justices grew to judge cases themselves based on a "common custom" of the king's courts.

• Glanville’s Treatise: Late in the reign, a treatise ascribed to Ranulf de Glanville (Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England) explained the uses of judicial writs for sale at the chancery. It compared royal law to the Justinian Corpus Juris Civilis.

• Sheriffs and Literacy: Henry II reasserted authority over the sheriffs in $1170$ to prevent the office from becoming hereditary. Sheriffs were required to be literate to handle the increasingly written nature of government administration.

• Criminal Justice: In the Assize of Clarendon ($1166$) and Assize of Northampton ($1176$), inquest juries of four men from each town and twelve from each hundred reported the names of criminals.

• Trial by Ordeal: Accused criminals submitted to trial by ordeal (water or hot iron). If the water rejected the person (they floated), they were guilty; if the fire-wounds became infected, they were guilty. Henry II reportedly distrusted these verdicts. Following the Fourth Lateran Council in $1215$, priests were barred from participating, ending the practice.

Land Law and Remedies for Possession

• Assize of Novel Disseisin ($1166$): Provided a speedy remedy for wrongful eviction (novel disseisin means "recent ejection"). A free tenant purchased a writ for $80$ silver pennies. A local jury answered if the claimant had been ejected recently and unjustly.

• Assize of Mort d’Ancestor: Offered help for those claiming heritable property. If the jury found the relative held the land on their death and the claimant was the nearest heir, the sheriff restored them.

• Grand Assize: An alternative to the dangerous "trial by battle" (duels between litigants or champions). It allowed a defendant to choose a jury of $12$ knights to decide who had the "greater right" to the property.

The Conflict Between Henry II and Thomas Becket

• Rise and Appointment of Becket: The son of a London merchant family, Thomas Becket was Henry’s chancellor and companion. In $1162$, Henry arranged his election as archbishop of Canterbury, expecting a compliant tool.

• The Transformation: Becket took his new role seriously, adopting an ascetic hair shift and asserting independence. He resigned as chancellor, viewing the king as a political colleague rather than a master.

• Constitutions of Clarendon ($1164$): A list of customs codifying pro-royal practices, including:

  • A ban on appeals to Rome without royal permission.

  • Royal jurisdiction over "criminous clerics." If a cleric was convicted and defrocked in an ecclesiastical court, they could be sentenced in a royal court.

• Exile and Murder: Becket fled to France in $1164$ to appeal to the pope. In $1170$, after Becket excommunicated bishops involved in the coronation of the Young Henry, Henry cried "Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?" Four barons murdered Becket in Canterbury Cathedral on December 29, 1170.

• Aftermath and Penance: Becket was canonized a martyr. Henry performed penance, walking barefoot through Canterbury and submitting to a ceremonial whipping. He formally repudiated the Constitutions of Clarendon, but in practice, royal control over high ecclesiastical appointments remained strong.

The Angevin Empire and Family Conflict

• Scope of the Empire: Henry’s dominion included England, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Brittany, Touraine, and Aquitaine. It was linked solely by allegiance to Henry, lacking central "imperial" administration.

• The Capetian Rivalry: Louis VII of France began taming local barons, while his son Philip II "Augustus" ($1180-1223$) pursued an aggressive anti-Angevin policy.

• Family Rebellion: Henry’s sons (Young Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey) rebelled in $1173-1174$, supported by Eleanor of Aquitaine. In the late $1180s$, Richard and John conspired with Philip Augustus against their father. Henry died in $1189$, reportedly saying, "Shame, shame on a conquered king."

The Reign of Richard the Lion-Hearted ($1189-1199$)

• The Warrior King: Richard was admired for his mastery of siegecraft and chivalrous style but criticized for a cruel, explosive temper. He spent less than $6$ months of his $10$-year reign in England.

• The Third Crusade: Richard led the campaign against Saladin, capturing Acre. After being captured by the duke of Austria on his return, England raised a massive ransom of $£100,000$, making England a temporary fief of the Holy Roman Empire.

• Administration: In his absence, England was governed by Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury, who presided over an era of improved administrative efficiency and the systematic maintenance of royal records.

King John ($1199-1216$) and the Failure of Policy

• Reputation and Character: John was intelligent and interested in administration but moodily suspicious and unchivalrous. Chroniclers like Roger Wendover and Matthew Paris recorded (likely exaggerated) stories of his cruelty, such as crushing Geoffrey of Norwich under lead. His baronial enemies nicknamed him "Softsword."

• Collapse of the Angevin Empire: John married Isabel of Angouleme ($1200$), who was betrothed to Hugh the Brown of Lusignan. This slight turned the Lusignans against him. Philip Augustus used this as a pretext to summon John to court as a vassal of France. When John refused, Philip declared his French fiefs forfeit. By $1204$, Normandy, Maine, and Anjou had fallen to France.

• Conflict with Innocent III: After the death of Hubert Walter ($1205$), John and the Canterbury monks disagreed on a successor. Pope Innocent III intervened, appointing Stephen Langton. John refused to accept him, leading to an Interdict ($1208-1214$). John eventually surrendered, making England a papal fief and promising an annual tribute.

• The Battle of Bouvines ($1214$): John led a coalition with Otto of Brunswick and the counts of Flanders to retake his lands. The crushing French victory at Bouvines extinguished John's hopes of recovering the Angevin Empire.

Magna Carta ($1215$)

• Runnymede: In June 1215, barons demanded a written guarantee of rights based on the charter of Henry I.

• Key Clauses:

  • Clause 12: Scutage and aid to be levied only by the "common counsel of our kingdom."

  • Clause 39: "No free man may be arrested or imprisoned or deprived of his land… except by the legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land."

  • Commercial Protections: "To no one will we sell, deny, or delay rights of justice."

• Significance: Though initially a failure that provoked war in $1215$, it became a step toward limited monarchy and government under law. It was reissued in $1216$, $1217$ (splitting into the Charter of Liberties and the Charter of the Forest), and $1225$.

Socioeconomic and Cultural Shifts in the High Middle Ages

• Demographics: Between Domesday Book and the end of the $13$th century, England's population doubled from approximately $2$ to $3$ million to nearly $5$ million.

• Agricultural Innovations: The transition to the "three-field" crop rotation system and the introduction of leguminous crops (peas, beans) helped restore nitrogen to the soil. Windmills, iron plowshares, and hoes increased calorie production, leading to better nutrition.

• Literacy and Paperwork: There was a massive increase in written documentation. From $15$ royal acts per year under William Rufus, production rose to $115$ per year under Henry II. Under Henry III ($1226-1272$), the use of sealing wax increased tenfold.

• Urban Growth and London: By $1300$, approximately $20$% of the population lived in towns. London reached a population of at least $35,000$. It was described by William fitz Stephen as a metropolis of trade, religious plays, and sports (ice skating, cockfights).

• Jewish Contribution and Persecution: Jews arrived from Rouen after the Conquest and specialized in moneylending. Aaron of Lincoln (d. $1186$) became the wealthiest man in England after the king. Growing anti-Semitism led to "ritual crucifixion" allegations (e.g., William of Norwich, Hugh of Lincoln) and culminated in the total expulsion of Jews from England in $1290$ by Edward I.

The Reign and Governance of Henry III ($1216-1272$)

• Minority Rule: Henry came to the throne at age $9$. The government was led by William the Marshal, Hubert de Burgh, and Peter des Roches. The Treaty of Lambeth ($1217$) ended the civil war with Prince Louis of France.

• Personal Rule and Favorites: Henry favored "aliens," including Savoyards and his Lusignan half-brothers. This sparked resentment among native magnates like Simon de Montfort.

• The Provisions of Oxford ($1258$): Facing military failure in Wales and the "Sicilian Business" ($£90,000$ debt to the papacy), Henry agreed to a council of $15$ to supervise the monarchy and mandated three parliaments per year.

• The Barons' War: Conflict between Henry and Simon de Montfort led to the Battle of Lewes ($1264$), where de Montfort captured the king. De Montfort’s parliament of $1265$ included for the first time representatives from both shires and towns. Lord Edward defeated de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham ($1265$), restoring his father to power.

The Reign of Edward I ($1272-1307$)

• Edward the Administrator: Known as "Longshanks," Edward was a warrior king who systematized the common law.

• Key Statutes:

  • Statute of Gloucester ($1278$): Initiated Quo Warranto proceedings to check private franchise warrants.

  • Statute of Mortmain ($1279$): Restricted land grants to the Church.

  • Statute of Westminster ($1285$): Clarified property laws and conditional grants.

  • Statute of Quia Emptores ($1290$): Banned further subinfeudation, simplifying feudal chains.

• Conquest of Wales: Edward defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and built a ring of massive castles (e.g., Beaumaris) to secure the province.

• The Scottish Conflict: Edward intervened in the Scottish succession, choosing John Balliol but treating him as a subservient vassal. This sparked resistance from William Wallace and later Robert Bruce. Edward took the Stone of Scone as a war trophy.

• Financial Pressures: His extensive wars cost roughly $£750,000$ between $1294$ and $1298$. To fund them, he taxed the clergy and laity heavily, leading to the Crisis of 1297 and the confirmation of the Charters.

The Emergence of the Fourteenth Century

• Transition and Decline: Prosperity faded toward $1300$. The Great Famine ($1315-1322$) and the Black Death ($1348$) halved the population.

• Edward II ($1307-1327$): Inherited a distracted kingdom. His obsession with Piers Gaveston and later the Despensers alienated his wife, Isabella of France, and his barons. After the defeat at Bannockburn ($1314$), his authority eroded.

• Deposition: In $1327$, Queen Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer deposed Edward II in parliament—the first royal deposition in English history. Edward was likely murdered in Berkeley Castle shortly thereafter.

Questions & Discussion

• The Coronation Oath of Edward II: Archbishop Robert Winchelsey posed the following terms, which the king accepted in English:

  • "Sire, will you grant and keep and confirm to the people of England by your oath the laws and customs given them by the previous just and God-fearing kings… particularly the laws, customs, and liberties granted… by the glorious king, the sainted Edward, your predecessor?" (I grant and promise them.)

  • "Sire, will you in all your judgments… preserve to God and the Holy Church… full peace and concord before God?" (I will preserve them.)

  • "Sire, will you… have justice rendered rightly, fairly, and widely, in compassion and truth?" (I will do so.)

  • "Sire, do you grant to be held and kept the laws and just customs which the community of your realm shall choose… will you defend and enforce them?" (I grant and promise them.)