Notes simplified

Chapter 1: Lifespan Development

Key Characteristics of Development

  • Lifelong – Continues throughout life.

  • Multidimensional – Includes biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes.

  • Multidirectional – Some abilities grow while others decline.

  • Plastic – The brain can adapt and change.

  • Contextual – Influenced by environment.

Major Developmental Debates

  1. Nature vs. Nurture – Genetic inheritance vs. environmental factors.

  2. Stability vs. Change – Do traits stay the same or evolve over time?

  3. Continuity vs. Discontinuity – Gradual change vs. development in stages.

Theories of Development

Psychoanalytic Theories

  • Sigmund Freud – Psychosexual Stages

    1. Oral (Infant) – Feeding/teething.

    2. Anal (Toddler) – Potty training (Anal Retentive = orderly, Anal Explosive = messy).

    3. Phallic (Early childhood) – Oedipal complex (desire for opposite-sex parent).

    4. Latency (Middle childhood) – Focus on school.

    5. Genital (Adolescence onward) – Relationships with others.

  • Erik Erikson – Psychosocial Stages

    1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) – Foundation of trust.

    2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddlerhood) – Independence vs. doubt.

    3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Early childhood) – Confidence vs. guilt.

    4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School age) – Skill mastery vs. feeling inadequate.

    5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) – Self-exploration.

    6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood) – Relationships vs. loneliness.

    7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood) – Helping others vs. lack of purpose.

    8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood) – Reflection on life.

Cognitive Theories

  • Jean Piaget – Cognitive Development

    1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs) – Learning through senses.

    2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs) – Use of words, images, and pretend play.

    3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs) – Logical thinking with concrete objects.

    4. Formal Operational (12+ yrs) – Abstract and logical thought.

  • Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory

    • Learning occurs through interaction.

    • Information-Processing Model:

      • Encoding – Creating memories.

      • Storage – Keeping information.

      • Retrieval – Accessing memories.

Behavioral Theories

  • Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning

    • Learning through association (e.g., bell + food = salivation).

  • B.F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning

    • Learning through rewards and punishments.

  • Albert Bandura – Social Learning Theory

    • Learning through observation (Bobo doll experiment).

Other Theories

  • Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz)

    • Imprinting – Attachment to the first seen figure.

    • Critical Periods – Key windows for development.

  • Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)

    • Secure – Trusting attachment.

    • Insecure-Avoidant – Avoids caregiver.

    • Insecure-Resistant – Clingy yet resistant.

    • Disorganized – Confused response to caregiver.

  • Ecological Systems Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

    1. Microsystem – Direct influences (family, friends, teachers).

    2. Mesosystem – Interactions between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher communication).

    3. Exosystem – Indirect influences (e.g., parent’s job).

    4. Macrosystem – Cultural and societal factors.

    5. Chronosystem – Changes over time (e.g., historical events, personal life events).

Research Methods

  • Observational Studies – Watching without interference.

    • Naturalistic (real-world setting) vs. Laboratory (controlled setting).

    • Issues: Observer bias, subject reactivity.

  • Surveys/Interviews – Self-reported data.

    • Issues: Social desirability, unrepresentative samples.

  • Correlational Research – Relationship between variables.

    • Correlation ≠ causation!

  • Experimental Research – Determines cause and effect.

    • IV (Independent Variable) – Manipulated.

    • DV (Dependent Variable) – Measured.

    • Experimental group – Receives treatment.

    • Control group – No treatment.

  • Cross-Sectional Study – Different age groups at one time.

  • Longitudinal Study – Same group studied over time.

Chapter 2: Biological Beginnings

Genetics and Development

  • Genes direct development.

  • 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in each cell.

  • Homozygous vs. Heterozygous (Same vs. different alleles).

  • Dominant (B) vs. Recessive (b) Traits.

Chromosomal Abnormalities

  • Down Syndrome – Extra chromosome 21.

  • Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) – Extra X chromosome in males.

  • Turner Syndrome (XO) – Missing X chromosome in females.

Gene-Linked Disorders

  • PKU – Cannot process phenylalanine; diet-controlled.

  • Sickle-Cell Anemia – Misshapen red blood cells.

  • Achondroplasia – Dwarfism.

Prenatal Development

  • Germinal (0-2 weeks) – Zygote divides and implants.

  • Embryonic (2-8 weeks) – Basic structures form.

  • Fetal (8 weeks-birth) – Growth and maturation.

Teratogens (Harmful Prenatal Influences)

  • Drugs (Prescription/Nonprescription) – Can affect development.

  • Alcohol (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome) – Cognitive/behavioral issues.

  • Nicotine – Low birth weight, respiratory problems.

  • Environmental Hazards – Radiation, chemicals.

  • Infectious Diseases – Rubella, HIV, syphilis.

Chapter 3: Physical Development

Patterns of Growth

  • Cephalocaudal – Growth from head to toe.

  • Proximodistal – Growth from center outward.

Body Growth Across Life Stages

  • Infancy – Rapid growth; weight triples in a year.

  • Childhood – Growth slows, proportions even out.

  • Adolescence – Growth spurts, puberty.

  • Adulthood – Peak at 30, gradual decline.

Brain Development

  • Infancy – Myelination (faster processing), synaptic growth.

  • Childhood – Brain growth continues, especially in frontal lobe.

  • Adolescence – Pruning, amygdala (emotion) vs. frontal lobe (logic) imbalance.