Chapter 3: Settlements, Alliances, and Resistance, 1607–1718

Jamestown and the Virginia Company (1607–1624)

• In $1607$, $105$ men from the Virginia Company arrived in North America and named their settlement Jamestown after King James I.
  • Immediate problems: unhealthy site conditions, an exceptionally cold winter, and a drought that left friendly Indians unwilling to share food.
  • Inter-colonial tensions: settlers fought among themselves; within a year, only $38$ of the original $105$ remained alive.
• Powhatan and the first decades of contact
  • The Powhatan Confederacy, under Powhatan, dominated Algonquian-speaking tribes in the region (population perhaps $13{,}000–15{,}000$).
  • Powhatan initially fed and traded with the English, aiming to use the alliance to counter rival tribes.
  • John Smith’s account (pub. 1630) claims he was saved from execution by Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas; historians now view this as possibly scripted, yet the episode eased tensions for a time.
• Leadership, labor, and the starving time
  • 1608: Smith became governor and enforced hard rules, famously declaring, "he who does not work, does not eat."
  • Smith left Jamestown in 1609, so he was not present during the starving time (1609–1610), when disease and famine nearly wiped out the colony.
  • Powhatan withdrew support; English attacked; in one instance, English killed and Indians stuffed bread into their victims’ mouths as a retaliatory tactic.
• Reorganization and expansion
  • Spring 1610: supplies arrived by an English fleet, boosters for a renewed effort.
  • The Virginia Company reorganized and began employing clergy to preach settlement virtues, aiming to convert Indians and prepare for English-Spanish confrontations.
  • Tobacco becomes the saving crop: Jamestown’s climate and soil prove ideal for tobacco production, which stabilizes the colony’s economy.
• Conflict and decline of the Powhatan power
  • 1622: Powhatan’s brother Openchancanough attacked, killing about $300$ of the $1{,}200$ settlers.
  • The conflict continued for about a decade and contributed to the Virginia Company’s near-bankruptcy.
• Virginia becomes a royal colony and the slave-based economy grows
  • 1624: Virginia becomes a royal colony, shifting control from the Virginia Company to the Crown.
  • European diseases devastate Indigenous populations; Africans increasingly brought as enslaved labor to produce tobacco.
• 1619 footnote: enslaved Africans arrive in Jamestown
  • The year $1619$ marks the arrival of enslaved Africans in Jamestown, signaling the beginnings of race-based slavery in English North America. The status of these arrivals varied (indentured servitude or slavery) and would evolve over time.
• Key consequences and context
  • The Jamestown experience demonstrates early English colonial persistence despite harsh conditions.
  • Tobacco as a cash crop reshaped labor, land use, and the development of race-based slavery.

Plymouth Colony and the Mayflower Compact; Native alliances (1620–1623)

• The Separatists (Pilgrims) depart England, attempt to settle in Holland, then sail on the Mayflower in 1620 under the Virginia Company charter.
• Mayflower voyage and governance
  • The ship carried roughly half Separatists ("Saints") and the rest "Strangers" recruited to fill space.
  • Upon landing far north of their intended site, the Pilgrims drafted the Mayflower Compact, a self-governing agreement aimed at orderly decision-making in the new colony.
• First encounters and survival
  • The area was sparsely populated by Indigenous peoples; the local Native community had been decimated by European diseases.
  • During the winter of 1620–21, about half of the passengers died from exposure, disease, or malnutrition.
• Native assistance and the basis for peaceful relations
  • In 1621, Samoset, an English-speaking Indigenous leader from what is now Maine, visited Plymouth and spoke English, inviting Massasoit, the Wampanoag leader.
  • Massasoit arrived with Squanto, a translator who had learned English and taught the English how to fish and fertilize corn.
  • This collaboration established a 54-year period of peace between the Plymouth settlers and the local Indigenous peoples.
• The first Thanksgiving
  • Governor William Bradford proclaimed a joint feast in the autumn of 1621, later celebrated as a symbolic “first Thanksgiving.” The term was not used at the time.

Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony; literacy, governance, and expansion (1629–1685)

• Great Migration and population growth
  • The Puritans sought reform within the Church of England and formed a colony under the Massachusetts Bay Company.
  • By late 1630, the Great Migration brought more than $1{,}000$ people and $200$ cattle; over the next decade, about $20{,}000$ more followed.
  • The colony quickly outnumbered Plymouth and Jamestown combined.
• The city upon a hill and governance
  • John Winthrop envisioned a “city upon a hill,” a model Christian commonwealth.
  • The Great and General Court governed Massachusetts Bay; elections were annual, but only church members in good standing could vote.
• Education and literacy as religious duty
  • Puritans placed a high value on literacy to read the Bible; Harvard College was founded in 1636 to train ministers, and Boston Latin School prepared students for college.
  • By 1647, the Massachusetts legislature required every township to provide schooling.
• Fragmentation and alternative Puritan colonies
  • 1637: Puritans on the Connecticut River established Hartford due to dissatisfaction with Boston’s governance.
  • 1639–1642: The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut formalized government and expanded male voting rights beyond Massachusetts standards; Hartford later joined with New Haven (1662) after New Haven was established by Puritans seeking stricter control.
• Roger Williams and Rhode Island
  • 1631: Roger Williams arrived in Boston; he argued civil authority should not enforce religious beliefs.
  • 1635: Williams was banished for his views; 1636: he founded Providence at Narragansett Bay, promoting religious toleration and paying Indigenous peoples for land.
  • Rhode Island emerged as a haven for dissenters and religious liberty.
• Anne Hutchinson and religious controversy
  • Anne Hutchinson challenged Puritan orthodoxy by claiming direct revelation from God; she was tried and exiled to Rhode Island, eventually moving to Dutch New Amsterdam where she and her family were killed by Indigenous peoples in 1643.
• Puritan internal tensions and the Halfway Covenant
  • As Puritan society secularized, fewer people experienced grace required for church membership.
  • 1662: The Halfway Covenant allowed baptized adults who were not full church members to have their own children baptized, broadening participation in church life without full membership.
• Maryland’s religious policy and Protestant dissenters
  • Maryland began as a proprietary colony under George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) and his heirs; Calvert intended a haven for Catholics.
  • After his death, Cecil Calvert continued the project; 1649 Act extended freedom of worship to anyone who acknowledged the divinity of Christ, welcoming Protestant dissenters who objected to Anglican tax support.
• The headright system and labor dynamics (Maryland/Virginia)
  • Both colonies used the headright system to attract settlers: $100$ acres per settler, plus $100$ for each additional adult and $50$ for each child.
• Slavery and legal codes
  • Slavery appeared early in Maryland; 1661 marks an early legal codification of slavery, including hereditary slave status and lifelong bondage for those born into slavery.

The Atlantic World: The Dutch, New Netherland, and the Middle Colonies

• Dutch settlement and the fur economy
  • 1609: Henry Hudson’s voyage for the Netherlands laid groundwork for Dutch claims.
  • The Dutch West India Company established Fort Orange (Albany) in 1624 and a settlement at New Amsterdam (Manhattan) in 1626.
  • The fur trade formed the economic backbone; Indigenous groups like the Iroquois benefited from competition between the Dutch and the French.
• The patroon system and religious diversity
  • The Dutch granted large tracts to patroons who promised to settle 50 people, creating private fiefdoms within the colony.
  • New Amsterdam became a haven for religious dissenters and a multicultural hub, hosting people from various nations and a substantial enslaved population.
• English conquest and consolidation
  • 1664: The English Crown granted New Amsterdam to James, Duke of York; the colony was renamed New York, and New Jersey was formed from parts of the territory.
  • New York’s harbor and access to the internal river systems made it a prize colony.
• Pennsylvania and the Quaker model
  • 1681: William Penn, a Quaker, received a huge land grant as debt payment; Pennsylvania was intended as a haven for Quakers and was open to all faiths.
  • Penn’s fair land policy included paying Indigenous peoples for land and promoting peaceful trade.
  • By 1684, Philadelphia housed enslaved Africans; about $150$ enslaved people lived in Philadelphia by this time.
  • By the early 1700s, enslaved people represented roughly $1/6$ of the Pennsylvania population, primarily serving as domestic and urban laborers.
  • Penn’s leadership was autocratic at times; the 1690s saw calls for greater political freedom, culminating in the Charter of Liberties, which established an elected legislature.
  • 1701: The three southern counties of Pennsylvania formed Delaware as a separate colony.
• New Sweden and the broader Delaware region
  • 1638: The New Sweden colony at Fort Christina; 1655: conquered by the Dutch; 1664: ceded to the English as part of Pennsylvania’s original grant.
• Carolina and the expansion of the Atlantic plantation economy
  • 1663: Eight proprietors established the colony of Carolina with a hierarchical system at the top.
  • The north attracted small-scale farmers from Virginia; the south developed a plantation economy, emphasizing rice and other crops, and a major harbor at Charleston.
  • 1729: Carolina split into North and South Carolina.
• Georgia and the debut of a debtors’ haven
  • 1733: James Oglethorpe founded Georgia as a haven for debtors and a buffer against Spanish Florida.
  • Initially, Catholics and Africans were excluded, though both groups would soon appear in the colony.

France, the Iroquois, and the Mississippi Valley

• French explorations and early imperial aims
  • The fur trade sparked French expansion into North America; Champlain founded Quebec in 1608, allying with the Montagnais and Hurons against the Iroquois.
  • Montreal was founded in 1642 to expand trade; Jesuit missionaries sought to convert neighboring tribes.
• Iroquois–French–English dynamics
  • The Iroquois often allied with the English and attacked French settlements, leading to periodic violence around Montreal.
  • The Hurons, once powerful, were drastically reduced after the 1640s and had limited presence by the late 1640s.
• Royalization of New France and expansion along the Mississippi
  • 1663: Louis XIV made New France a royal province and sent troops to protect Quebec from Iroquois raids.
  • 1672: Louis de Frontenac authorized Joliet and Marquette to explore the Mississippi to seek a potential route to China.
  • Joliet and Marquette determined the Mississippi flowed southward, opening up potential for trade and strategic control.
  • 1679: Robert de La Salle led a major expedition down the Mississippi; 1682 he claimed the land at the Gulf of Mexico as Louisiana for France.
  • La Salle’s expedition pushed west toward Texas; his followers killed him in 1687.
• Mississippi Valley and New France’s footprint
  • French explorers and Jesuit missions established a presence in the Mississippi Valley; small French communities dotted the region through the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
  • The French introduced slavery into the Mississippi Valley, including enslaved Africans from Senegal who had ties to Islam and influence in Indigo processing and sugar/crop cultivation.
• New Orleans and the Gulf coast
  • 1718: New Orleans was established; the French Quarter dates to 1722, with early population including migrants such as prostitutes and criminals seeking opportunity.
• Cultural contributions
  • Senegalese slaves contributed to music and culinary traditions; their presence influenced New Orleans’ early cultural landscape.

Spain and the Southern Frontier: Pueblo Revolt and beyond

• Pueblo Revolt and the Pueblo peoples
  • 1680: The Pueblo Indians of northern New Mexico, led by Pope, revolted against Spanish rule (Pueblo Revolt).
  • The rebellion was the most successful Indigenous uprising in what is now the United States, with churches and statues destroyed as Indigenous groups asserted autonomy.
  • 1692: Don Diego De Vargas led a campaign to regain control and offered amnesty in exchange for reconversion to Christianity while allowing traditional religious practices to continue.
  • The reconquest approach allowed a degree of religious and cultural continuity for Indigenous communities.
• Spanish borderlands and Texas expansion
  • The Spanish established San Antonio to buttress claims to Texas after New Orleans’ founding.
• California missions and the broader Spanish strategy
  • A chain of missions across present-day California aimed to convert Indigenous peoples and develop regional economies.

Key themes, terms, and implications across the era

• Economics and labor systems
  • Tobacco (Virginia) as a cash crop drove labor demand and fueled expansion; later, plantation economies in the southern colonies depended on enslaved labor.
  • The fur trade (French and Dutch) shaped settlement patterns, alliances with Indigenous groups, and competition with other imperial powers.
  • The headright system (land grants) stimulated settlement but also increased land concentration and tensions with Indigenous peoples.
• Religion and governance
  • Magna ans: Mayflower Compact as an early self-government step; Puritans aiming to build a model society; religious tolerance varied by colony and evolved with demographic changes.
  • The Halfway Covenant (1662) reflects evolving church membership and political participation.
  • The Act of Toleration (Maryland, 1649) represented one of the earlier toleration precedents in English North America, though it was limited to Christians who acknowledged Christ.
• Slavery, race, and legal codes
  • The 1619 arrival of Africans marked the beginnings of race-based chattel slavery; by 1661, slavery was legally codified in some colonies, and by the 18th century, slavery pervaded most southern colonies.
  • Anthony Johnson’s example in the 17th century shows that early enslaved Africans could gain some status and property, but systemic racialized slavery expanded over time.
• Indigenous– settler conflicts and diplomacy
  • King Philip’s War (1675–1676) devastated New England and demonstrated deep-seated conflicts between settlers and Indigenous nations.
  • Pequot War (1637) and other conflicts (e.g., western Virginia tensions) illustrate the brutal nature of frontier imperialism and its consequences for Indigenous peoples.
• Transatlantic connections and imperial competition
  • The English, French, Spanish, and Dutch all pursued expansion in North America, often clashing over land, trade routes, and alliances with Indigenous nations.
  • The establishment and dissolution of colonies were often tied to broader European political shifts (e.g., Charles II’s policies, Dutch-English wars, and Royal authority).

Summary of key dates and milestones

• Jamestown founded: $1607$
• Starving Time: $1609–1610$
• Powhatan attack (Openchancanough): $1622$
• Virginia becomes royal colony: $1624$
• Plymouth founded: 1620; Mayflower Compact established
• Puritan Great Migration to Massachusetts Bay: $1629–1630$; rapid growth through the 1630s–1640s
• Harvard founded: $1636$
• Connecticut constitutional advances (Fundamental Orders): $1639–1642$; Halfway Covenant: $1662$
• Maryland Act of Toleration: $1649$
• Slavery codified in Maryland/Virginia: largely by $1661$
• New Netherland seized by English and renamed New York: $1664$
• Delaware established: $1701$ (as part of Pennsylvania’s grant)
• Carolina colony established: $1663$; split into North and South: $1729$
• Georgia founded: $1733$
• Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico: $1680$; reconquest under Don Diego De Vargas: $1692$; San Antonio and California missions expand
• New Orleans founded by the French: $1718$; French Quarter by $1722$
• Queen Anne’s War and later developments in the Mississippi Valley: early 1700s