President Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction: 1865-1869 Study Guide
Introduction to President Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1865–1869)
Context of Succession: Following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, the Radical Republicans in Congress awaited the Reconstruction policy of the newly inaugurated successor, Andrew Johnson (1865–1869).
Andrew Johnson’s Background: * Origin: Born in North Carolina; grew up in Tennessee. * Political Career: He was a prominent Democratic politician and a wartime Unionist. * Republican Perception: Republicans initially welcomed him due to his pledges to punish treason and traitors, which they interpreted as a sign of a stern policy toward the defeated South. * Overlooked Ideology: Republicans initially ignored Johnson’s silence regarding the fate of freed people. Although he had freed his own slaves and supported wartime emancipation, his passionate Unionism masked a fierce embrace of white supremacy and a belief in the innate inferiority of African Americans.
The Initial Reconstruction Plan of Andrew Johnson
Alignment with Lincoln: Johnson’s initial Reconstruction acts echoed Lincoln’s wartime initiatives.
Requirements for Southern States: * Negation of Secession: States had to negate their ordinances of secession. * Abolition of Slavery: States had to abolish slavery, specifically by ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment. * Financial Nullification: Confederate debts had to be nullified. * Governance: Southern states were required to write new state constitutions and establish state governments.
Policy Gaps and Omissions: * Percentage of Loyalty: Unlike Lincoln's 10% plan, Johnson’s plan set no specific rule regarding the percentage of “loyal” people required for state readmission. * Confederate Eligibility: The plan allowed former Confederate officials to vote and hold public office. This led to many southern states electing former Confederate leaders into the United States Congress. * Lack of Freedmen Provisions: Johnson made absolutely no provision for African Americans regarding citizenship, male suffrage, or economic and educational opportunities.
Pardon and Property Policy: * Johnson’s pardon policy effectively halted the confiscation of Confederate property for freed people. * Restoration: It provided for the restoration of all property to individuals covered by the policy. * Personal Pardons: Wealthy white southerners and other prominent classes of Confederates were required to seek a pardon from the president personally.
The Thirteenth Amendment
Ratification Date: December 5, 1865.
Official Mandate: It officially abolished slavery throughout the entire United States and any place subject to its jurisdiction.
Text of the Amendment: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."
Conditions in the Post-War South and the Rise of Black Codes
White Supremacist Violence: Events evidenced the need for federal intervention to stop terrorism against Black southerners and white allies. * Memphis, Tennessee (May 1866): A white mob attacked Black Union veterans who had just been discharged. * New Orleans (August 1866): A white mob attacked marchers protesting the actions of the Louisiana state government.
South's Response to Leniency: Encouraged by Johnson’s lenient policies, white southerners constructed new constitutions and governments aimed at retaining white supremacy. * Debate over Emancipation: In some instances, they debated whether to accept emancipation at all or if they should seek compensation for their losses. * Exclusion: No former Confederate state provided for Black citizenship or male suffrage. Governmental assistance for education or economic advancement was rejected.
The Black Codes: State legislatures passed these laws to establish a second-class status for Black people and limit their rights of citizenship. * Differential Punishment: They established different punishments based on race for those convicted of crimes. * Common Restrictions: Black codes included restrictions against Black people working in certain businesses, living in specific parts of town, carrying firearms, and testifying against white people in court.
Congressional Response and the Legislative Showdown
Refusal to Seat Southerners: When Congress convened in December 1865, Republicans refused to seat the southern representatives elected under Johnson’s plan.
Congressional Investigation: Congress began investigating southern conditions and framing alternative proposals to protect Black rights and promote opportunity.
The Freedmen’s Bureau Veto: Johnson struck back by vetoing a bill that would have expanded the authority of the Freedmen’s Bureau. Congressional Republicans were unable to override this specific veto.
Civil Rights Act of 1866: A less ambitious bill than the expanded Freedmen’s Bureau bill, which aimed to make equality before the law subject to federal enforcement. This time, Congress successfully overrode Johnson’s veto, setting the stage for a major showdown.
The Fourteenth Amendment
Ratification Date: July 9, 1868.
Purpose: To implement a moderate Reconstruction program through constitutional change that could forestall presidential opposition.
Key Provisions: * Citizenship: Defined U.S. citizenship to include African Americans. * Due Process and Equal Protection: Provided for all people to enjoy equal protection under the law and due process. * Office Restrictions: Established which former Confederates were barred from holding federal office. * Representation Clause: It prevented southern states from increasing their representation in the House of Representatives and the Electoral College if they denied adult men the right to vote. Representation would be reduced proportionally for states that limited suffrage.
Readmission Condition: Any former Confederate state that ratified the 14th Amendment was to be readmitted to the Union. Tennessee was the first state to take advantage of this.
Text of the Amendment: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
The Midterm Elections of 1866: A National Referendum
The Referendum: The 1866 midterm elections became a referendum on Reconstruction policies.
Johnson’s Strategy: Johnson sought to erode Republican congressional majorities to regain control.
"Swing Around the Circle": This was a disastrous speaking tour conducted by President Johnson during the campaign.
Republican Victory: Republicans prevailed by presenting themselves as the party that would protect the fruits of the Northern victory against former Confederates and Northern Democrats. They secured veto-proof supermajorities.
The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 (Military Reconstruction)
Legislative Origin: Following Johnson's urging of Southern states to reject the 14th Amendment, Republicans passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867.
Provisional Status: The state governments established under Johnson’s plan in the ten former Confederate states that had not ratified the 14th Amendment were declared provisional.
Five Military Districts: The South was divided into five districts, each placed under the supervision of a Major General.
Enfranchisement: African American men were granted the right to participate in the process as voters, delegates, and elected officials through federal power.
Political Gains: The acts allowed for large-scale participation of Black men in politics. They served as delegates to constitutional conventions and won elections to local, state, and federal offices.
Public Education: New local and state governments erected schools and provided for public education for the first time.
Limitations: The acts fell short of securing economic resources (specifically land ownership) for freed people due to resistance from moderate Republicans.
Outcome by 1868: All but three former Confederate states had regained representation in Congress, participated in the 1868 presidential election, and ratified the 14th Amendment.
The Tenure of Office Act and the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
Tenure of Office Act (1867): This act denied the President the ability to remove any executive officer who had been appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate without Senate approval.
The Conflict: Johnson attempted to hamper Reconstruction measures throughout 1867. During a congressional recess, he suspended Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, a supporter of Republican measures.
Fall Elections of 1867: Republicans suffered setbacks in Northern elections, partly due to their efforts to secure Black suffrage. Johnson viewed these losses as a sign of limited popular support for Radical measures.
The Act of Defiance: Johnson removed Stanton outright in defiance of the Tenure of Office Act after the Senate failed to concur with Stanton's removal.
Impeachment (February 24, 1868): The House of Representatives voted to impeach Andrew Johnson. The articles of impeachment focused on his violation of the Tenure of Office Act rather than his general obstruction of Reconstruction.
The Senate Trial: Johnson was acquitted by a single vote. Seven Republicans joined the Democrats to vote for acquittal.
Reasons for Acquittal: 1. Concerns regarding Benjamin Wade (the Ohio Radical Republican who was next in line for the presidency). 2. The existing Republican rally behind the candidacy of Ulysses S. Grant for the 1868 election.
Result: Johnson served out the remainder of his term until 1869.