Chapter 2: Enduring Ideas in Political Philosophy
Enduring Ideas in Political Philosophy
Introduction to Political Philosophy
Political philosophy is a distinct field of inquiry that examines fundamental and often contested questions of political science.
Core Questions Explored:
What constitutes freedom, justice, equality, order, and authority?
What is the ultimate purpose of government?
What does a 'good life' truly entail for individuals and the collective?
It is an extensive, ongoing conversation involving diverse voices, traditions, texts, and interests across historical periods.
Disciplining Knowledge and Contested Ideas
Political philosophy often begins with 'essentially contested' ideas, concepts that are inherently debatable and without universally agreed-upon definitions.
Challenges to Traditional Knowledge Framing:
Recurrent analytical insights: The question arises whether these insights can be separated from their original context, and who has the power to perform this separation.
Univocal framings of knowledge: This refers to the presentation of knowledge from a single, dominant perspective, often associated with the Western canon, monotheism, or a singular view of human nature.
Universal Human Nature: The assumption that human nature is universally self-interested and fearful has historically been used to justify various political actions, often drawing a distinction between humans and animals.
Rights and Injustice: This framing raises critical questions about who is deemed deserving of rights.
Robbie Shilliam's Decolonizing Politics: An Introduction (2021) advocates for recontextualizing political thinkers by considering the pervasive roles of imperialism and settler colonialism in their historical settings.
This approach uses the logic of imperialism and colonialism to understand the arguments of these thinkers, leading potentially to a 'reconceptualization' of their ideas.
It challenges existing epistemologies, questioning which knowledge is deemed valid and how it gained such status, suggesting that a monovocal (single-voiced) way of thinking may be easier but not necessarily more accurate.
Ancient Beginnings of Western Political Philosophy
Origins: The first systematic texts on political philosophy are traditionally attributed to the ancient Greeks, though this claim is subject to scrutiny.
The Canon: These texts are considered to form a canon of ideas that has endured, but only 'if we let it,' implying an active choice in their continued relevance.
Historical Context: Ancient Greek thought was profoundly shaped by the real-world context of Athens in the 5^{th} Century BCE.
Key events included the era of Pericles and the Peloponnesian War, which ultimately led to the dissolution of Athenian democracy.
The rise and fall of Athens inspired a critical reimagining of the polis (city-state), prompting questions about justice versus might, and judgment versus instinct, and the very nature of democracy.
Beyond Western Canon: Students should also explore indigenous traditions (Burrows 2016, Simpson 2017) for alternative perspectives on concepts like authority, freedom, belonging, social relations, and the good life.
Ancient vs. Modern Divide: The most common division in political philosophy is between 'ancients' and 'moderns.' Some argue we 'have never been modern' (Latour), suggesting the distinction is more complex.
Athenian Political Culture:
The polis was central to life; the common good was often prioritized over individual and family interests.
Politics was viewed as a moral activity, valorizing individual sacrifice for collective benefit, raising questions about who should sacrifice and how much.
Context of the 5^{th} Century BCE Greece:
Pericles urged Athenians to 'fall in love' with their city, a concept that raises questions about its similarity to modern patriotism, fandom, or fanaticism.
Post-Pericles, a vibrant and commercial city collapsed into warfare and financial ruin, leading to a period where 'might makes right' and instinct often superseded judgment. Democracy was dissolved by a coup d'état.
These events established persistent Western themes and modes of thinking.
Persistent Ideas and Storytelling:
We tend to understand concepts within a narrative context, providing a moral framework for individual decision-making and 'sense-making' (working within common sense).
This includes ideas of the good life, the common good, and individual actions within corrupt contexts.
The oligarchy that seized power after the war believed that 'good people' should rule for others, not for themselves, an idea often dismissed as naive.
This raises questions about whether the perception of others' self-interest degrades the idea of public service, and if collective benefit truly emerges from providing for all.
Socrates, Plato, and The Republic
Plato's Republic is a foundational text, centered on the lessons drawn from Athens' experiences, and structured as a dialogue with his teacher, Socrates.
The shift from dialogue to a 'univocal framework' in later philosophical transmission is a point of consideration.
Core Questions in The Republic:
Are truth and political power reconcilable?
What is the nature of a well-ordered city-state?
Plato proposed a division of labor based on wisdom, courage, and moderation.
The city should be ruled by 'philosopher-rulers'—those guided by wisdom.
Plato expressed ambivalence about whether such an ideal community could ever realistically exist.
Practicalities of Governance:
How would such a system be established? Would the existing state need to be 'wiped clean' first?
How would philosopher-rulers be identified, trained, persuaded to rule, and ensure the next generation of rulers?
The critical question: 'Who would watch the watchdogs?'
Questions of Impunity:
Plato suggests that a ruler without restraint—a tyrant—is the most unhappy of all, enslaved to their appetites.
Such a ruler only flatters, has no true friends, and cannot abandon their position lest others inflict upon them what they have inflicted.
A city under tyranny is imprisoned by fear, where no one can move freely, drawing a parallel to figures like Pinochet and the importance of peaceful transitions of power.
This highlights thinking about power dynamically, not just statically.
Aristotle
Plato's student and author of Politics, Aristotle viewed the polis as the highest form of human association.
It was seen as the ideal setting for individuals to pursue the good life and for humans, as 'political animals,' to reach their fullest potential (raising questions about the honesty or cynicism of this view).
Goal of the Polis: To cultivate virtue and phronesis (practical judgment based on experience).
Who Should Rule? Aristotle suggested 'the many,' but explicitly excluded slaves and women from citizenship.
Aristotle's Colonial Context:
He was born into a world of inter-imperial competition, with Athens entangled in conflicts with Persia (leading to assumptions about Persians as 'barbarians') and threatened by Macedonians.
Aristotle himself was an immigrant, a 'metic' (permanent alien/resident) in Athens.
This background prompts reflection on contemporary inter-imperial rivalries (e.g., American, Russian, Chinese) and which systems are deemed 'best.'
Malleable Citizenship in Athens:
Pericles' law in 451 BCE restricted citizenship to children of two Athenian parents, denying it to immigrants.
Metics, free workers, constituted one-third to one-half of Athens' free population, but could not own land, vote, serve as magistrates, or represent themselves in court.
This raises questions about how long one must reside somewhere to be considered a 'local.'
Aristotle as a Metic:
He was unable to buy property and had to rent.
He often referred to Athenians as 'they' instead of 'us.'
As a Macedonian sympathizer, he was forced to leave Athens and settled in Lesbos, later returning to teach Alexander the Great, and visiting again to write his Treatise on Politics.
This context leads to questions about what defines a stranger or a friend, and whether relationships are purely transactional.
Absent Context and Modern Relevance:
These historical practices (second-class citizenship for immigrants, xenophobia) are strikingly similar to current issues.
The context of Greece as a center of non-European inter-imperial politics is often overlooked.
Such historical analysis challenges the association of states with stability, prompting us to ask: 'Stable for whom?'
Empire as Unexceptional: Aristotle wrote his treatise as an asylum-seeker caught between two imperial powers, lacking the rights of a settled citizen. This informs how we should view his teachings.
Greek Tragic Worldview and Self-Interrogation
The Tragic perspective offers another ethical lens in Greek thought.
Sophocles' Antigone: Explores the conflict between individual conscience and arbitrary state power, emphasizing fidelity to individual truth.
Plato's Apology and Crito: Recount Socrates' trial and death, falsely accused of impiety and corrupting the youth, embodying his assertion that 'the unexamined life is not worth living.'
Capacity for Self-Interrogation: Hannah Arendt highlighted the crucial role of thinking during 'dark times' as an antidote to automatic 'bandwagoning' or 'virtue signaling solidarity.'
This leads to the question: 'Whose truth is the goal of politics?'
Early Modern Political Thought
This era is linked to the rise of Christianity, the decline of the Roman Empire, and the influence of the Islamic world, ideas that will be further explored in subsequent chapters.
Martin Luther (1483-1546): His challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church played a significant role in shaping the political landscape.
Machiavelli (1469-1527): Author of The Prince.
Argued that rulers need to be compassionate but must also 'know how to do evil' if necessary for maintaining power.
Quote from The Prince, Chapter 15: "'[t]he fact is that a man who wants to act virtuously in every way necessarily comes to grief among so many who are not virtuous. Therefore if a Prince wants to maintain his rule, he must learn how to not be virtuous, and to make use of this or not according to need.'" (Machiavelli 1981, chapter 15, 91).
Machiavelli noted that 'the common people are always impressed by appearances and results,' prompting a modern comparison between politicians and influencers.
Liberal Ideas
Liberal ideas became dominant in the modern era, focusing on individuals, individual rights, consent as the basis of authority, and limited government.
Goals: To pacify politics after periods of war and to contain arbitrary power.
Thomas Hobbes
Author of Leviathan (1651).
State of Nature: Imagined a world prior to the formation of societies (drawing on travelogues from North America).
In this state, life is