9 Consequentialism

Modern Ethical Theories

The study of ethics often centers around two contrasting views: the belief that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences versus the belief that it is determined by the intentions or motives of the agent.

John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism

Overview of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism, a consequentialist theory articulated by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), holds that the consequences of an action determine its moral worth. The fundamental criterion for evaluating these consequences is the amount of pleasure or pain they produce. Utilitarianism suggests that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Key Formulations

Mill's principle can be summarized in a more refined form: an action is morally right if it generates more happiness than any alternative. This principle emphasizes the production of the most happiness and the least unhappiness possible.

Formulation Problems

However, various formulations of utilitarianism face objections:

  • First Formulation Problem: The idea that an action is right if it creates the greatest happiness for the greatest number can lead to questionable actions. For instance, giving a small refund to many may seem to create overall happiness, but a larger refund to the poorest might yield greater happiness for fewer individuals.

  • Second Formulation Problem: Another example highlights that an action that benefits one could harm another (e.g., purchasing an expensive gift for one child while making another unhappy).

Consequences and Alternatives

The critical assessment of actions under utilitarianism revolves around their consequences. An action is defined as morally right if no alternative yields better consequences. An illustrative scenario might involve deciding whether to eat cake or ice cream, both of which provide moderate happiness, while not eating results in moderate unhappiness.

Critiques of Utilitarianism

Three major objections include:

  • Ethical Egoism: A contrasting view that moral actions are right if they promote the agent's own welfare. Mill rebuts this, asserting that moral actions consider the welfare of everyone affected.

  • Unrealistic Expectations: Critics argue that utilitarianism demands constant consideration of the common good, which may not be feasible.

  • Impracticality: The necessity of calculating utilities before each action can be impractical and burdensome.

Utilitarianism seeks to maximize utility—defined as ensuring no alternative action offers better consequences for everyone.

Moral Decisions and Responsibilities

Utilitarianism emphasizes the consequences over motives, leading to discussions about moral decision-making. For example, individuals may face scenarios where immediate action might save a life (e.g., jumping in to rescue a drowning swimmer) versus taking time to deliberate, which may lead to negative outcomes.

Summary of Utilitarianism Principles

To summarize, utilitarianism centers on:

  • The consequences of actions.

  • The consideration of everyone's welfare.

  • The claim that motives are morally irrelevant, focusing instead on overall outcomes.

  • The argument that a detailed cost/benefit analysis is not always necessary before acting.

Variants of Utilitarianism

There are two prominent types of utilitarianism:

  • Act Utilitarianism: This approach evaluates the morality of an action based on the utility produced by that specific act.

  • Rule Utilitarianism: This variant assesses actions based on the utility of adhering to rules that generally promote happiness.

Mill's contributions and the subsequent critiques highlight the complexities surrounding the application of utilitarian theory and its implications for ethical decision-making.