Conflicts with American Indians

• Federal government conflicts with Native Americans increased in the 1870s.
• Indian Appropriation Act of 1871 ended tribes' recognition as independent nations.
• Major conflicts:
  • Red River War against the Comanche.
  • Second Sioux War led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse.
• Notable events:
  • Battle of Little Big Horn (1876): Custer's defeat.
  • Chief Joseph's surrender in 1877 after attempt to escape to Canada.

Declining Way of Life

• Pressure from U.S. Army and near-extinction of buffalo led to collapse of Plains tribes' lifestyle by early 1880s.
• Final resistance through the Ghost Dance movement aimed at restoring Native American prosperity.
• Government suppression of the movement led to:
  • Sitting Bull's death during arrest.
  • Massacre at Wounded Knee (1890), marking the end of the Indian Wars.

Assimilation Efforts

• A Century of Dishonor (1881) by Helen Hunt Jackson raised awareness of injustices but also promoted assimilation.
• Reformers advocated formal education, job training, and conversion to Christianity.
• Establishment of boarding schools (e.g., Carlisle School) to teach European-American culture.

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

• Act aimed to assimilate American Indians by breaking up tribal lands.
• Divided lands into individual plots (up to 160 acres).
• Citizenship offered to those who remained on land for 25 years and adopted civilized habits.
• Notably:
  • 47 million acres distributed to American Indians.
  • 90 million acres of prime land sold to White settlers over time.