Race Relations in the U.S 1945-89

Q) Why did race relations remain a major issue in the U.S, 1945-89?

With the fight for black civil rights, race relations remained a major issue in the U.S from 1945 to 1989. During these years, America saw the rise in new black leadership, the changing in legislation as well as the pushing for equality for all citizens- especially those of different races. The constitution established in 1791 claimed that “all Men were created equal”, but this was not the truth. In America, slavery was legal until 1865, and the Jim Crow laws set in place, which enforced segregation between black and white people, were only somewhat removed in the mid to late 60s. While the Supreme Court ruled that the Jim Crow Laws were not unconstitutional, and that they were “separate but equal”, this again would prove to be untruthful. Racial segregation in facilities like schools, bathrooms and buses often meant that black facilities were lower quality than white ones. As well as that, in some states black people were not allowed to vote, or had to prove their literacy to vote. The system was against them in every aspect of life. This caused frustration from the black community, who were becoming tired of being treated differently than white people, and went through a period of change within these years. Leaders like Martin Luther King (M.L.K) and Malcom X arose, protests like the Montgomery Bus Boycott took place and the condition of black people slowly began to improve. However, the black community faced pushback from white-supremiscists groups, such as the K.K.K. The relations between races in America was of major importance during this time, and would go on to influence the future of equality in the U.S.

The position of race relations truly began to change after WW2. During the war, black people were allowed to fight and work alongside white soldiers without segregation. This was due to Truman’s executive order that desegregated the armed forces in 1948. However, when they returned from war, America continued to segregate black people from white people. This became a catalyst for change. Black people could fight and die for democracy and freedom, but couldn’t be given the same in their own country- it didn’t add up. By 1945, thousands of black people were moving from the south to northern states to get jobs. They were concentrated in certain areas of the cities, these were known as ghettos. Now that more black people were living closer together, there were more chances to organise meetings and talks, which would soon turn into organising protests. Liberalism was on the rise among these groups, which included the belief that someone’s skin colour was unimportant. A new educated, black leadership also began to arise, such as M.L.K. These groups deduced that if America portrayed itself as the “Free World against evil communism”, that it was hypocritical of them to treat millions of its people as second class citizens. Knowing that something had to be done, the black groups came together to form the N.A.A.C.P, the “National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People”. They hoped with a more professional look, they would be listened to and taken more seriously. These were the ground foundations for improving the racial discrimination in America, and proved that race relations were a major issue during this time. 

Peaceful protests would be another factor that kept the topic of race relations a major issue in America. One of the most well-known protests being the “Montgomery Bus Boycott”. Segregation was a massive factor in race relations in the U.S. As mentioned above, the “separate but equal” mindset was faulty. For instance, in Alabama, buses were segregated, but black people had to sit at the back, and if a white person got on looking for a seat, a black person would have to resign their seat to the white person. As well as this, the Alabama bus company only hired white drivers. Even in the mundane aspects of life like public transport, black people had a harder time. The Code of the City of Montgomery read: “Every person operating a bus line shall provide separate but equal accommodation for white people and negroes on his buses.” But this was not the case, it was unfair, and black organisations saw this. Nearly 70% of users in Montgomery were black- they couldn’t afford their own cars like white people because they couldn’t get good jobs and were paid less. They were often abused or harassed by drivers, despite being their main clientele. If segregation laws were not obeyed, black people could be fined or arrested, this was seen with Claudette Devlin, who refused to give up her seat to a white person on the bus. Overall, black people saw that their treatment was discriminatory, and decided to do something about it. 

On December 1st, 1955, Rosa Parks boarded a Montgomery bus after work and sat at the back. When all the white seats were full, she was asked by the driver to give up her seat to a white man. She refused. Parks didn’t argue with the driver but remained seated and silent. She was then arrested. Unbeknownst to Parks at the time, this would become one of the most important acts of protest in regards to race relations in America. Parks was a member of the N.A.A.C.P, and she called her good friend Edgar Daniel Nixon, the leader of the N.A.A.C.P, to bail her out. Nixon believed that this small arrest could be made into publicity for the fight against segregation. He convinced Parks and her family to take the bus company to court over discrimination. Nixon contacted other black leaders, like Rev. Ralph Abernathy and M.L.K, to secure their support. Parks was due to appear in court on Dec. 5th, and on that same day, the N.A.A.C.P organised a boycott of the Montgomery bus service. 40,000 black commuters found other ways to work that day- cycling, carpools and private taxis. The boycott was so successful that they decided to continue it for more than just one day. In the end, the boycott lasted 381 days. The black community faced severe backlash from white supremacists, they were attacked in their carpools, black churches(which acted as the pick-up point for carpools) were vandalised and false reports to the media tried to claim that the boycott had ended when it hadn’t (to cause confusion). The peaceful protest was a success. In 1956, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on public transport was unconstitutional. This was the foot in the door for equality. The protest made history, showing that race relations were a major issue in America, and that the black community were successful in pushing for change in a peaceful way. 

The leadership shown by the boycott kept race relations at the forefront of Americans’ minds, with M.L.K being one of the most prominent leaders. King was born in Atlanta, Georgia in 1929. He was an educated man, who was awarded a PhD from Boston University in 1955. In Montgomery, King came to prominence for his involvement in the bus boycott, during which he became the president of the MIA (Montgomery Improvement Association). He was inspired by the teachings of Gandhi and Terence MAcSweeney, and believed that achieving progress for African Americans should be done through peaceful methods. He then founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and was involved in many non-violent protests, like in Birmingham, Alabama. Despite his peaceful methods, the police continued to use brutality against protestors. King in turn led 250,000 peaceful protestors in a civil rights march in Washington, and made his famous “I Have a Dream” speech in 1963. His desire for equality through peace is seen best within this speech, with statements like: “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.”  In 1964, King was awarded the Nobel Peace prize. He saw the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, which prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. King is forever remembered for the impact he has had on race relations in America, and for being a part of prominent leaders who led the future of equality for all citizens in the U.S.  

Although improvement for race relations was on its way, it was slow in getting there. While public transport was desegregated, it didn’t mean that other aspects of life got the same treatment. The fight for equality in education was still to be fought. In 1954, the N.A.A.C.P challenged segregation in schools with the Brown v. Board of Education Topeka. The N.A.A.C.P won, and the Supreme Court ruled that black students must be allowed to attend the same schools and universities as white students: “separate education facilities are inherently unequal.” However, while it was ruled unconstitutional, there was major resistance to integration in the southern states. Governor Faubus of Arkansas refused to desegregate education. In Sept. 1957, 9 black students tried to enrol at the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The National Guard were sent in to stop them, and a white mob surrounded the school. President Eisenhower sent 1,000 federal troops into Little Rock to prevent the 9 students from being refused entry, and they eventually enrolled and attended. By 1969, 20% of black children in the south attended integrated schools as there were still other social and political conditions that hindered desegregation. Changes in race relations also occurred for public facilities. The Montgomery Bus Boycott inspired a new wave of black activism, now more smaller acts of protest were happening all over the country. In 1960, 4 black students defied segregation laws by sitting at a “white only” lunch counter in North Carolina. They refused to leave, even when they were not being served. Other black people followed this example, and a huge lunch-counter campaign was started, including over 50,000 young people. In 1961, a “freedom ride” was organised by black and white civil rights activists. They tested the outlawed segregation on public transport. They were assaulted and intimidated by white mobs, and had to be escorted by federal marshals. These instances showed that despite some improvement, race relations were still a major issue during this time. 

Race relations remained an important issue due the obstacles for black voters as well. In many states in the South, there were factors that made it harder for African Americans to vote. Poll tax required voters to pay a fee to vote- but many black people could not afford this fee. There were also literacy tests, but considering that many black people could not afford to stay in school and become educated, many didn’t know how to read or write. And finally the K.K.K (Ku Klux Klan) intimidated black people and prevented them from voting. As a result of all this, in 1955, only 4% of black people were registered to vote. M.L.K, seeing the inequalities black voters faced, organised peaceful protests in the south. The slogan used was: “Free by 63”. He managed to bring together many different elements- his own Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and Congress on Racial Equality. In May 1963, King organised a protest in Birmingham, Alabama, where marchers filled the streets singing “We Shall Overcome”. If arrested, like KIng was, others took their place. On May 3rd, 6,000 black children marched through Birmingham, police arrested thousands. The next day, police chief O’Connor ordered the use of dogs and cattle prods against the protestors. When this violence was shown on TV, people were shocked, and most of M.L.K’s demands were met. President Kennedy brought in a Civil Rights Bill, but the bill was delayed. King’s “I Have a Dream” protest happened soon after, and helped to get Kennedy’s Civil Rights Bill made into law under President L.B.J. By 1964, still only very few black people registered to vote in the south, so King organised another protest march from Selma to Montgomery. Police again used violent methods, such as tear gas, against the protestors, and audiences on TV were once again shocked. L.B.J sent the National Guard to protect the marchers. Thanks to the many protests, in 1965, the Voting Rights Act became legal, and it gave black people equal voting rights. By 1968, 60% of black people were registered to vote. The fight for voting rights demonstrated how major of an issue race relations was at this time in the U.S.

Race relations in the U.S was, and still continues to be, a long and lengthy battle. From 1945 to 1989, major leaps in equality were made, and many of these protests continue to inspire activists even in modern day. While M.L.K’s “I have a dream” speech is often credited as the turning point for Black Civil Rights, I feel it’s important to remember the other great protests that paved the way for equality. The Montgomery Bus Boycott, Little Rock and even just the acts of everyday protest, broke down the walls of segregation brick by brick. Race relations in the U.S can show us that the process of change is lengthy, and can only work through determination and the refusal to give in- even under violent pressure. In the words of Rosa Parks: “To bring about change, you must not be afraid to take the first step. We will fail when we fail to try.” Race relations remained a major issue in the U.S from 1945 to 1989 due to: segregation after WW2, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, black leaders like M.L.K, desegregation in schools and public facilities, as well as voting rights for black Americans.