AP Psych Fall Final

1. Operational definition: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

2. Replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. Example: after many successful replications with different people and questions, we feel sure of the phenomenon’s power.

3. Case study: a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. Example: Brain damage. Much of our early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered a particular impairment after damage to a certain brain region.

4. Naturalistic Observation: a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Example: watching chimpanzee societies in the jungle, or videotaping and analyzing parent-child interactions in different cultures

5. Correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Example: an increase in school attendance led to an increase in test scores

6. Meta-Analysis: a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion. Example: a researcher could conduct a meta-analysis of several studies on the association between self-efficacy and achievement, integrating the finding into an overall correlation.

7. Surveys: a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. Example: questions about social media use or political opinions

8. Experimenter bias: bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs. Example: a researcher may inadvertently cue participants to behave or respond in a particular way

9. Social-desirability bias: participants affecting results by trying to please the researchers. Example: if respondents believe their answers will be identifiable or that there may be social or political consequences for their responses, they may be more likely to provide answers they believe are more socially acceptable.

10. Random selection: how sample members(study participants) are selected from the population for inclusion in the study. It ensures everyone in a population has an equal chance of being selected, promoting representativeness and generalizability. Example: random selection might be used to draw 100 students to participate in a study.

11. Convenience sampling: collecting research from a group that is readily available. Example: your friends at school, rather than a sample that would represent all students at your school.

12. Generalizable: the study results are applied to broader populations than the original study sample. Sampling needs to be representative sampling, representing all of the population in order to be generalizable. Example: a researcher may generalize the results of a survey of 350 people in a university to the university population as a whole

13. Correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Example: an increase in school attendance led to an increase in test scores.

14. Correlation vs. Causation: Correlation doesn't equal causation. It may suggest, but not prove. Example: Correlation suggests a possible cause dash effect relationship but does not prove it. 

15. Illusory correlation: perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a strong-than-actual relationship. Example: Gamblers, remembering past luck rolls, may come to believe they influenced the roll of the dice by throwing gently for low numbers and hard for high numbers. 

16. Regression towards the mean: the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. Example: extreme results, such as lower-than-expected test scores, are caused by unfortunate combinations - test topic, question difficulty, our sleep (or lack thereof), the weather.

17. Independent Variable: in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Example: the students memories, intelligence, and age. 

18. Dependent Variable: the variable that measures the outcome of the experiment. Example: if we are measuring which comedian makes the children laugh, then we will be measuring how many times the children laugh for the dependent variable.

19. Experimental group: in an experiment, the group is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Example: reduced screen time

20. Control Group: in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. Example: they do not receive reduced screen time

21. Random Assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. Example: random numbers table or the flip of a coin

22. Single blind Study: an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo. Example: Participant is unsure whether they receive the actual tested medication or the placebo

23. Double Blind Study: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant(blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Example: both the researcher and the participants are unaware of who received the placebo and the actual antidepressant drug

24. Placebo: an inactive substance or other intervention that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, an active drug or treatment being tested. Example: sugar pill.

25. Confounding variables: in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results. Example: in your caffeine study, for example, it is possible that the students who received caffeine also had more sleep than the control group, or the experimental group may have spent more time overall preparing for the exam. 

26. Experimental Bias: bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs. Example: a researcher may inadvertently cue participants to behave or respond in a particular way

27. Validity: the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what is supposed to. Example: In the rental housing experiment, we might ask, “Did the email inquiries test the effect of perceived ethnicity?

28. Quantitative vs Qualitative: Quantitative research is research that relies on quantifiable, numerical data. Example:percentages  Qualitative research relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers. Example: Personal interviews

29. Ethics: the standards that direct the conduct of its professional members

    1. Voluntary Participation: the act of willingly choosing to participate in a study without any coercion or pressure. Example: volunteering to be apart of a drug-testing experiment

    2. Protection from harm: ensuring individuals safety, emotional well-being, privacy rights, dignity preservation during any psychological research or interventions. Example: ensuring a participant they will not get hurt during an experiment involving studies on specific areas of the brain

3. Informed consent+assent: consent may be only given by individuals who have reached the legal age of consent. Example: an 18 year old can consent to participating in an exercising experiment. Assent refers to the willingness to participate in research by persons who are by definition too young to give informed consent, but are old enough to understand the proposed research in general. Example: A 17 year old gets permission by their parents to participate in a study.

4. Confidentiality: the ethical principle of protecting the privacy and personal information of research participants. Example: not revealing the names, age, etc of participants in a study

5. Debriefing: a process used after an experiment or research study where participants are provided with information regarding the purpose, procedures, and findings of the study. Example: Researchers explain to participants the procedures of their deception experiment and the purpose.

6. Use of Deception: when a researcher gives false information to subjects or intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research. Example: one study team member tells participants that they will be engaged in a cooperative task with other participants, but instead they will be interacting with other members of the study team.

30. Standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. Example: if the IQ’s of some group have a standard deviation of 10, most of the group will have an IQ within approximately 10 points of the mean.

31. Normal Distribution Curve: a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. Example: IQ

32. Inferential Statistics: numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. Example: based on the data collected from 10 psych students that say they love writing, you infer that all/most psych students love writing.

33. Central Nervous System: the brain and spinal cord. (CNS)

34. Peripheral nervous System: the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (PNS)

35. Autonomic Nervous System: the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. Example: the heart

36. Somatic nervous System: the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. Example: controlling your breathing.

37. Sympathetic nervous System: the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy. Example: Taking the AP exam makes the sympathetic nervous system accelerate your heartbeat. 

38. Parasympathetic nervous System: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. Example: calms the body, helping it make it maintain homeostasis when digesting.

39. Neuron: a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system.

40. Dendrite: a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

41. Soma: the part of a neuron that contains its nucleus and other standard cellular structures.

42. Axon: the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.  

43. Glial Cells: cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

44. Multiple Sclerosis: the loss of muscle control resulting from a deterioration of myelin sheaths. 

45. Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

1. Acetylcholine: enables muscle action, learning and memory. Example of malfunctions: with Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.

2. Dopamine: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Example of malfunctions: oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease

3. Serotonin: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Example of Malfunctions: Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression. 

4. Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure. Example of Malfunctions: Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural endorphin supply.

46. Reuptake Inhibitor: Drugs that prevent a neurotransmitter from being reabsorbed by presynaptic axons, causing greater activation of postsynaptic receptors. Example: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

47. Agonist: a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action. Example: opioids such as heroin and methadone

48. Antagonist: a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action. Example: ketamine for NMDA. 

49. Endocrine System: the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Example: include ovaries, testes, pituitary gland, thyroid, and pineal glands. 

1. Adrenaline: a stress hormone known as epinephrine; part of a “fight or flight” response. Example: when facing a perceived stressor or threat, the hormone stimulates the nervous system to prepare the body for a quick response. 

2. Oxytocin: a hormone that is produced in the hypothalamus and transported by the pituitary gland; enables orgasm and, in women, labor contractions and milk flow while nursing. It also aids social support. 

3. Melatonin: a hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. 

50. Depressants: drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. Example: alcohol, barbiturates(tranquilizers), and opioids. 

51. Stimulants: drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Example: caffeine, nicotine, and more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy. 

52. Hallucinogens: psychedelic (‘mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. Example: LSD and MDMA (Ecstasy),  others include the mild hallucinogen marijuana. 

53. Opioids: opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. Example: heroin and its medically prescribed synthetic substitute, methadone. 

54. Tolerance: the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.

55. Addiction: is a compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences. This can be both physical and/or psychological. Oftentimes people become addicted because they try to slave the pain away. 

56. Brain: organ in the nervous system with billions of neurons organized in neural networks to connect the brain’s different regions. 

1. Brainstem: the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

2. Thalamus: the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem, it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla; acts as a “transit hub”

3. Amygdala: two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion; enables aggression and fear

4. Hippocampus: processes consciousness and explicit memory; the loss of the hippocampus also means you cannot form new memories, degrades over time, but head injuries would shrink your hippocampus

5. Corpus callosum: the bundle of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemispheres

6. Pituitary gland: small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain. It controls other glands in the body, making it a key player in regulating vital bodily functions and general wellbeing.

57. Cerebral Cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center, divided into 4 lobes

58. Broca’s areas: an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

59. Wernicke’s area: an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression

60. Phineas Gage: a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury in the mid-19th century. His case is often studied in psychology because of the dramatic personality changes he experienced after his accident, which provided early evidence for the role of the frontal lobes in personality and behavior. 

61. Split Brain: a term used when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree. This condition results in those hemispheres not being able to communicate as effectively. Right side: perceptual task; creativity- includes understanding inferences, artistic skills, and musical skills

Left side: speaking or math; language, speech, reading, and writing

62. Sleep: a periodic, natural loss of consciousness- it is distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

63. Parallel Processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously. Example: when you see a bus coming towards you, you see its color, shape, depth, and motion all at once

64. Circadian Rhythm: your body's biological clock, the regular bodily rhythms. It helps to regulate the following things: temperature changes, circadian rhythm varies with age (how much sleep you need vs how old you are), it is a 24-25 hour wake/sleep cycle

65. REM Sleep: rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (Sometimes called R sleep.)

66. NREM: non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

67. Reason for Sleep

1. Consolidation theory: also known as information processing theory; dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories. Criticism: But why do we sometimes dream about things we have not experienced and about past events?

2. Physiological functioning: Regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. Criticism: This does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams. 

3. Activation synthesis: REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our brain weaves into stories. Criticism: The individual’s brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer

4. Cognitive development: Dream content reflects dreamers’ level of cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding. Dreams stimulate our lives, including worst-case scenarios. Does not propose an adaptive function of dreams. 

68. Sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Example: the conversion of light into neurological impulses the brain then constructs into what we experience as vision.

69. Perception: the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful. 

70. Bottom-Up Processing: information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. Example: stubbing your toe on a chair, the pain receptors detect pain and send this information to the brain where it is processed. 

71. Top-Down Processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. Example: the ability to avoid dangerous situations. Knowing not to step on a snake or drive too fast in the rain can keep a person out of danger. 

72. Wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission. 

73. Intensity: the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).

74. Amplitude: the height or depth of a wave signal such as sound or light, which correlates with the loudness and brightness in light waves. 

75. Eye:

    1. Cornea: the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

2. Iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

3. Pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

4. Lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

5. Retina: the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

76. Accommodation: the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina

77.  Rods and Cones: Rods: Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. Cones: retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

78. Optic Nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

79. Blind Spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” sport because no receptor cells are located there

80. Inner Ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

1. Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses 

2. Semicircular Canals: a system of ring-like structures belonging to the vestibular system, the system responsible for the sense of balance and directionality of acceleration forces. 

81. Sensorineural deafness: damage to inner ear; damage to cochlea’s hair receptors, caused by loud noise, sheared off, damage to auditory nerve, can be caused by loud noises, scuba diving, head injuries

82. Conductive deafness: damage to the mechanical system; damage to outer and middle ear, usually caused by genetics and aging

83. Cochlear Implant: device converts sounds into electrical signals, stimulates auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea, triggers dormant part of the brain in those who have received implants; however, they can only help restoring hearing if they learned to process sound as a kid

84. Place Theory: the place on the cochlea’s membrane that is stimulated by sound waves determines which pitch you hear. Problem: only explains why we hear high pitched sounds, not low pitched

85. Frequency Theory: nerves will fire at the same rates as the soundwave, so a lower frequency will mean slower firing of neurons and lower pitch. Problem: Neurons can only fire 1000 times a second: Volley theory solves this

86. Gate-Control Theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. 

87. Phantom Limb: the the sensation felt by people without limbs that makes them feel pain or movement in their missing limb

88. Vestibular Sense: our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance

89. Inattentional Blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. 

90. Change Blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

91. Schemas: the cognitive framework that allows a person to interpret a new situation based on their experience in similar, prior experiences

92. Perceptual Set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

93. Gestalt Principles: the different ways individuals group stimuli together in order to make a whole that makes sense to them. These principle include: proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, and closure.

94. Retinal Disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images form the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. 

95. Convergence: a cue to nearby objects’ distance enabled by the brain combining retinal images

96. Stroboscopic effect: an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images

97.  Cognition: the process of thinking or mentally processing information such as concepts, language, and images.

98. Schemeas: the cognitive framework that allows a person to interpret a new situation based on their experience in similar, prior experiences

99. Prototypes: a mental image or best example of a category, Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow) 

100. Convergent Thinking: narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. Example: How many uses can you think of for a brick?

101. Divergent Thinking: expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions. 

102. Functional Fixedness: when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions.

103. Algorithms: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error-prone -use of heuristics 

104. Heuristics: a simple thinking strategy- a mental shortcut- that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.

1. Representative Heuristics: judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. Example: When people think of basketball players, they often think they are tall and may assume that simply because someone is tall, they are interested in basketball. 

2. Availability Heuristics: judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mine (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. Example: After hearing about a plane crash on television, many individuals will be afraid to fly even though the likelihood that they were in more danger was slight because when they think about flying, this plane crash will be the first thing that pops into their mind.

105. Mental Set: a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past. Example: someone who knows that yelling and throwing a fit has gotten them what they wanted might only use this solution to get what they want in the present.

106. Belief Perseverance: the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. Example: a person who believes that smoking does not cause cancer despite the abundance of evidence that shows that smoking does cause cancer

107. Framing: the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements. Example: the difference between the positive perception of 70% success rate and the more negative perception of a 30% failure rate

108. Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier Example: a fill-in-the-blank test. 

109. Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned. Example: a multiple-choice test. 

110. Sensory Memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. Example: smelling cookies

111. Short Term Memory: briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten. Example: digits of a phone number

112. Long Term Memory: the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Example: knowledge, skills, and experiences. 

113. Rehearsal: the process of repeatedly practicing material so that it can be remembered

114. Explicit Memory:the conscious recollection of facts and events; also referred to as “declarative memory”.  Example: birth dates of friends and family

1. Semantic: explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems. Example: Remembering that the tallest mountain in the world is Mount Everest

2. Episode: explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of  our two conscious memory systems. Example: your first day of kindergarten

115. Implicit Memory: retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. Example: singing a familiar song

116. Procedural Memory: long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks. This is often more a physical memory than a verbal memory, sometimes referred to as muscle memory. Example: riding a bike

117. Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings. Example: word meanings

118. Effortful Processing: active processing of information that requires sustained effort. Example: requires attention and awareness; when we study in class or memorize a poem

119. Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. Example: if you are in class and distracted by thoughts and your teacher asks “What did I just say?” you can recover the last few words from your mind’s echo chamber. 

120. Chunking: organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically. Example: phone numbers

121. Mnemonic: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Example: ROYGBIV for remembering the sequence of colors in a rainbow.

122. Hierarchies: remembering through a ranking order Example: learning the nervous system in the bio unit

123. Spacing Effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. Example: Using Duolingo to learn a language every day, or doing your AP Psych reading guide every day

124. Testing Effect: enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading information. Also referred to as retrieval practice effect or test- enhanced learning. Example: quizizz

125. Shallow Processing: encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words. Example: we may type there when we mean their, write when we mean right, and two when we mean too. Garrulous- you might know hot to write this down but you do not know what it means

126. Deep Processing: encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. Example: understanding that garrulous means excessively talkative

127. Anterograde Amnesia: an inability to form new memories. Example: he could remember his past, but he could not form new memories.

128. Retrograde Amnesia: an inability to remember information from one’s past.

129. Encoding Failure: the brain’s occasional failure to create a memory link. Example: “tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon

130. Storage Decay: information is stored in long term memory, but there is a failure with retrieval. - Ebbinghaus

131. Proactive Interference: (forward acting-old info blocks new info) the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. Example: calling you new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name.

132. General Intelligence: (g) a factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. This means if you score high on 1 subject or test, you should also score high on other subjects or tests. -Spearman

133. General Intelligence: g) a factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. This means if you score high on 1 subject or test, you should also score high on other subjects or tests. -Spearman

134. Fluid Intelligence: our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood. (Gf) 

135. Crystallized Intelligence: our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. (Gc)

136. Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory: the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities bridged by Gf and Gc

137. Howard Gardner Intelligence: Multiple intelligence theory that suggests intelligence is not a single, fixed entity, but rather a combination of 8, measurable, and different types of “intelligences”. Example: These include: Body-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal

138. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Model of Intelligence: 

1. Analytical: Academic problem-solving intelligence; Example: traditional intelligence tests, used to predict school grades or vocational success

2. Practical: required for everyday tasks. Management skills, motivating others, writing effective memos to staff, delegating tasks to others.

3. Creative: Measures creative problem solving, adaptability to novel/new situations or generate new ideas

139. Intelligence Tests: a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

140. Aptitude Tests: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. Example: a college entrance exam, which is designed to predict your ability to do college or university work

141. Achievement Tests: a test designed to assess what a person has learned. Example: the AP exam

142. Stanford-Binet Scale: the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test 

143. Eugenics: the practice or advocacy of improving the human species by selectively mating people with specific desirable hereditary traits. 

144. WAIS intelligence: the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

145. Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

146. Validity: the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what iis supposed to.

147. Fluid Vs Crystalized intelligence: fluid intelligence (Gf) is our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving logic problems, while crystallized intelligence (Gc) is our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and applied skills

148. Longitudinal studies: research that follows and retests the same people over time

149. Cross-Sectional Studies: compares people of different ages at the same point in time

150. Growth vs fixed mindset: Growth mindset is a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed, while fixed mindset is the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.

151. Stereotype Threat: a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype; Example: appeared again when Black students performed worse when reminded of their race just before taking verbal aptitude tests

152. Stereotype Lift: the opposite of stereotype threat, Example: men do better on math tests after being told they are men, Asians doing better on math tests after they are reminded they are Asian

153. Classical Conditioning: a type of  learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

154. Operant Conditioning: a type of learning in which a  behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

155. Extinction: diminishing of a CR (conditioned response), in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS; in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced 

156. Little Albert Experiment: This experiment was conducted by John B. Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner, in which he conditioned a baby,’Little Albert’, to fear a white rat by paring it with a loud noise

157. Skinner Box: also known as an operant chamber; in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar oor key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

158. Reinforcement: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

159. Discriminative Stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement) 

160. Negative vs positive reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. Positive reinforcement increases behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response. 

161. Positive vs negative punishment: Positive punishments administer an aversive stimulus. Example: spraying water on a barking dog or giving a traffic ticket for speeding. Negative punishment withdraws a rewarding stimulus. Example: taking away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges; block a rude commenter on social media

162. Schedules:

1. Fixed-ratio: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Examples: buy 10 coffees, get 1 free

2. Variable-ratio: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Examples: playing slot machines or fishing

3. Fixed-interval: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. Example: tuesday discount

4. Variable-interval: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Example: checking our phone for messages