PSYC100_midterm1_studyguide_student - Tagged

Study Guide Overview

  • This study guide serves as a starting point for the PSYC 100 midterm exam.

  • It covers basic and fundamental concepts of psychology but is not comprehensive.

  • Encourage students to utilize textbooks, class notes, and instructor materials for thorough preparation.

Chapter 1: Psychology’s Roots & Critical Thinking

Key Concepts

  1. Definition of Psychology

    • Scientific Study of behavior and mental processes.

    • Behavior: Observable actions.

    • Mental Processes: Thoughts, feelings, motives.

  2. Psychology as a Science

    • Critical Thinking: Go beyond accepting arguments; evaluate evidence.






    • Scientific Method:i. Observe: Identify phenomena.ii. Hypothesize: Make testable predictions.iii. Test: Conduct empirical research.iv. Conclude: Analyze data and draw conclusions.v. Evaluate: Revise theory if needed.

  3. Historical Roots

    • Wilhelm Wundt: Founded the first psychology lab (1879).

    • Structuralism: Study of mind structure (Wundt, Titchener).

    • Functionalism: Behavior's role in adaptation (William James).

    • Behaviorism: Focus on observable behavior (John Watson, B.F. Skinner).

    • Cognitive Psychology: Examines mental processes.

  4. Modern Perspectives

    • Neuroscience: Brain/body relation to emotions/memories.

    • Behavior Genetics: Influence of genetics and environment on behavior.

    • Cognitive Psychology: Information processing and storage.

    • Socio-Cultural: Behavior variations across cultures.

Key Terms

  • Biopsychosocial Approach: Integrates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors.

  • Dual Processing: Simultaneous processing of information in conscious and unconscious tracks.

Important Figures

  1. Wilhelm Wundt: Father of modern psychology.

  2. William James: Key figure in functionalism.

  3. John B. Watson/B.F. Skinner: Pioneers of behaviorism.

Chapter Questions

  • How is psychology a science?

  • What would a behaviorist study?

Chapter 2: Biology of Behavior & Consciousness

Key Concepts

  1. Nervous System

    • Neurons: Building blocks of the nervous system.

    • Neuroplasticity: Brain’s ability to adapt.




    • Types of Neurons:i. Sensory Neurons: Carry info from senses to brain.ii. Motor Neurons: Carry info from brain to muscles.iii. Interneurons: Communicate within the brain/spinal cord.

  2. Neural Communication

    • Action Potential: Electrical charge traveling down the axon.

    • Synapse: Gap where neurotransmitters are released.

    • Neurotransmitters: Chemicals transmitting messages (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

  3. Nervous System Divisions

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All other neural structures.

    • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.

    • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary functions.

      • Sympathetic: Arouses body (fight or flight).

      • Parasympathetic: Calms body (rest and digest).

  4. Brain Structure and Function

    • Brainstem: Controls essential life functions.

    • Limbic System: Emotion and memory (amygdala, hippocampus).

    • Cerebral Cortex: Higher-level functions.

      • Lobes of the Brain:

        1. Frontal Lobe: Reasoning, motor control.

        2. Parietal Lobe: Sensory information processing.

        3. Occipital Lobe: Vision.

        4. Temporal Lobe: Hearing and memory.

  5. Brain Imaging Techniques

    • EEG: Measures brain electrical activities.

    • MRI: Images of brain structures.

    • fMRI: Shows blood flow and brain activity.

  6. Sleep

    • Definition: Periodic natural loss of consciousness.

    • Biological Rhythms:

      • Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour internal clock.

      • 90-minute Sleep Cycle: Repeated stages of sleep.


    • Sleep Stages:i. N1: Light sleep (theta waves). ii. N2: Less responsive; sleep spindles. iii. N3: Deep sleep (delta waves). iv. REM Sleep: Vivid dreaming; brain active.


    • Why Do We Sleep?i. Evolutionary: Protection, energy conservation. ii. Restoration: Physical and mental repair. iii. Brain Plasticity: Learning enhancement.

    • Effects of Sleep Deprivation: Impaired memory, attention, and mood.

    • Dreams: Primarily in REM sleep, can be vivid/emotional.

    • Theories on Why We Dream:

      • Information Processing: Helps store experiences.

      • Neural Development: Strengthens brain connections.

      • Freud’s Theory: Reflects unconscious desires.

Key Terms

  • Neuroplasticity: Brain's adaptability.

  • Neurotransmitters: Brain chemical messengers.

  • Sympathetic Nervous System: Stress preparation.

  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Stress recovery.

Important Brain Structures

  1. Amygdala: Emotion, especially fear.

  2. Hippocampus: Memory formation.

  3. Frontal Lobe: Decision-making, voluntary movement.

Chapter Questions

  • What are the theories of why we sleep? Is any one theory “right”?

  • What does it mean when we say the brain is “plastic”?

Chapter 3: Developing Through the Life Span

Key Concepts

  1. Research Methods

    • Cross-sectional Studies: Many people assessed at one time.

    • Longitudinal Studies: Same people assessed over time.

    • Preferential Looking Technique: Infants show preference through looking behavior.

  2. Big Questions in Developmental Psychology

    • Nature & Nurture: Interaction between genetic inheritance and experiences.

    • Continuity & Stages: Gradual vs. abrupt changes in development.

    • Stability & Change: Traits persistence vs. changes with age.

  3. Biological Processes

    • DNA: Genetic information molecule.

    • Genes: Units of heredity within chromosomes.

    • Chromosomes: Threadlike structures made of DNA.

    • Genome: Complete genetic instructions of an organism.

    • Epigenetics: Environmental effects on gene expression.

    • Epigenetic Marks: Molecules affecting genetic expression.

  4. Prenatal, Infancy, and Childhood Development

    • Zygote: Fertilized egg in rapid division stage.

    • Embryo: Developing human from 2 to 8 weeks post-fertilization.

    • Fetus: Developing human from 9 weeks to birth.

    • Automatic Reflex: Newborn survival responses.

    • Critical Period: Optimal time for skill acquisition.

  5. Cognitive Processes

    • Schemas: Information organization concepts or frameworks.

    • Assimilation: Fitting new info into existing schemas.

    • Accommodation: Adjusting schemas based on new info.

    • Theory of Mind: Recognizing mental states in oneself and others.

  6. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

    • Stages and Key Characteristics:

      1. Sensorimotor (Birth-2 years): Object permanence.

      2. Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking increases.

      3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Perspective-taking ability.

      4. Formal Operational (11-15 years): Hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

  7. Vygotsky’s Contributions

    • Scaffolding: Learning through guided interaction with knowledgeable others.

    • Zone of Proximal Development: Skills performed with help but not independently.

    • Private Speech: Internal dialogue aiding skill development.

  8. Socioemotional Processes

    • Stranger Anxiety: Infants' fear of unfamiliar people.

    • Attachment: Emotional bonds with caregivers.

    • Types of Attachment:

      • Secure: Play comfortably in caregiver's presence; distressed when they leave.

      • Anxious: Cling and cry when caregiver departs.

      • Avoidant: Indifferent to caregiver’s departure/return.

    • Temperament: Individual behavioral response styles.

  9. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

    • Key Stages:

      1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth-1.5 years)

      2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1.5-3 years)

      3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years)

      4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-Puberty)

      5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

      6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 years)

      7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years)

      8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years)

  10. Parenting Styles

  • Responsive vs. Controlling:

    • Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglectful styles.

Key Terms

  • Development: Continuity and change in human capabilities.

  • Developmental Psychology: Study of physical, cognitive, and social development through life.

Chapter Questions

  • What outcomes are associated with each parenting style?

  • What is emerging adulthood?

  • What are some abilities of newborns?

Chapter 5: Sensation & Perception

Key Concepts

  1. Sensation and the Brain

    • Transduction: Converting energy forms into neural impulses.

    • Sensory Receptors: Specialized cells detecting stimuli.

      • Photoreceptors: Light detection (sight).

      • Mechanoreceptors: Pressure, vibration (hearing, balance).

      • Chemoreceptors: Chemical stimuli (smell, taste).

    • All-or-Nothing Principle: Neurons fire upon reaching a specific threshold.

    • Thalamus: Sensory information relay station.

  2. Thresholds

    • Absolute Thresholds: Minimum stimuli detectable.

    • Difference Thresholds: Difference needed to detect variations between stimuli.

    • Weber’s Law: Constant proportion necessary for detection differences.

  3. Subliminal Perception

    • Subliminal Perception: Detecting stimuli below conscious awareness.

    • Priming: Activating associations unconsciously impacting perception and responses.

    • Sensory Adaptation: Changes in responsiveness due to surrounding stimulation levels.

  4. Vision

    • Retina: Multilayered surface for electromagnetic energy conversion.

    • Cones: Color perception receptor cells; concentrated in the fovea.

    • Rods: Light-sensitive receptors, not effective for color vision.

  5. Color Vision

    • Trichromatic Theory: Three cone types produce color perception.

    • Opponent Process Theory: Visual system cells respond to complementary pairs.

  6. Gestalt Psychology

    • Figure-Ground Relationships: Organizing perception into distinguishing figures and backgrounds.

    • Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization:

      1. Law of Good Continuation

      2. Law of Proximity

      3. Law of Closure

  7. Depth Perception

    • Binocular Cues: Depth information using both eyes.

      • Convergence: Inward eye movement indication.

      • Retinal Disparity: Comparing images from both eyes for distance calculations.

    • Monocular Cues: Depth cues observable with one eye.

    • Perceptual Constancy: Object recognition remains consistent despite changes in sensory input.

  8. Hearing (Audition)

    • Ear Parts:

      • Outer: Pinna, external auditory canal.

      • Middle: Channels, amplifies sound.

      • Inner: Oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane.

    • Hair Cells: Line basilar membrane; vibrate with sound frequencies.

    • Cilia: Fine bristles on hair cells interacting with sound.

  9. Other Senses

    • Touch: Mechanical energy against the skin.

    • Pain: Warning sensation from nociceptors detecting harmful stimuli.

    • Taste: Detected by papillae (taste buds).

    • Smell: Detected by olfactory epithelium in nasal cavity.

    • Kinesthetic Sense: Movement and posture information.

    • Vestibular Sense: Balance information via semicircular canals.

    • Sensory Interaction: Interplay of senses influencing perception.

Key Terms

  • Stimuli: Detectable environmental factors.

  • Sensation: Receiving and transforming stimuli into neural energy.

  • Sensory Receptors: Nerve endings responsive to stimuli.

  • Perception: Organizing/interpreting sensory info.

  • Top-Down Processing: Perception influenced by expectations/previous knowledge.

  • Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory info processed from environmental input.

  • Stereotyping: Expectations based on group membership.

Chapter Questions

  • Top-down vs. Bottom-up processing examples?

  • How do we sense body position/movement?

  • What is the McGurk Effect?