Psychology of Culture, Community, and Global Citizenship - Lecture 8: Food and Eating in a Global Context

Lecture 8: Food and Eating in a Global Context

Reading

• Sproesser et al. (2022)

Acknowledgement of Country

• La Trobe University acknowledges campuses are located on the unceded lands of traditional custodians in Victoria.
• Recognizes ongoing connection to the land and values their unique contribution to the university and wider Australian society.
• Committed to providing opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.
• La Trobe University has campuses and undertakes teaching, learning and research activities in the traditional lands of the following people: Wurundjeri, Boonerwrung, Jaara Jaara, Latji Latji, Barkindji, Muthi Muthi, Wiradjuri, Dhudhuroa, WayWurru, Yorta Yorta, Bangerang, and Taunerong.
• Pays respects to Elders, past and present, and thanks them for their ongoing care of the land, skies, and waterways.
• Acknowledges Indigenous staff for their valuable contributions, dedication, and ongoing support of strategic objectives.

Lecture Outline

• Food Universals and Evolution
• The Meaning of Food in Life
• Food and Sustainability
• Attitudes Toward Alternative Proteins
• Attitudes Toward Plant-Forward Diets

Learning Outcomes

• Describe potential cultural universals in food and eating.
• Explain the cultural evolution of chocolate and chili consumption.
• Describe how the meaning of food relates to people’s dietary behavior.
• Understand some contemporary research areas in the domain of food and sustainability.

Potential Universals

• Meals
• Gender roles with respect to food
• Taboos center around meat
• Ceremonies, ritual around meat or staple food
• Fire and cooking: specific techniques
• Feasts
• Food and social interaction
• Medicinal plants
• Sharing
• Utensils
• Flavoring
• Staples

Cultural Evolution

• Agriculture/domestication
• Industrialisation  mass transport and food technology (20th century)
• Green revolution
• Modern (molecular) cuisine

Sugar/Sweetness: Biology Drives Agriculture

• Innate sweet preference & searching for sweets (fruit)
• Cultivation of sugar cane and sugar beets
• Extraction of sugar and use as a sweetener (e.g., coffee, tea, desserts; colonization of the Americas)
• Non-nutritive sweeteners unlink sweet taste and calories

Chocolate: Biology Drives Cultural Innovations

• Cacao bean: bitter and not particularly aromatic
• Elaborate cultural technology/processing add sugar and sometimes milk
• process to enhance aroma, bring out smoothness
• Creation of a sugar-fat-aromatic super food melts in mouth, most craved food in USA
• (Rozin, 2007)

Chili Pepper: Biology Overridden By Culture

• Innate aversion to irritant tastes
• Cultivation of chili peppers, varying irritant properties
• Incorporation into cuisine
• Eaten/enjoyed daily by billions
• Exposure to chili pepper produces liking:
  • by social influence/transmission (culture)
  • by enjoyment of risk (psychology)
• (Rozin et al., 1982)

Question

• Which of the following things about food and eating is probably NOT a (near) cultural universal?
  • a) People share meals with others
  • b) People of different genders are expected to eat differently
  • c) People flavor their foods with herbs and spices
  • d) Meals are served in a series of courses

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background

• Food choices are rich in meaning
• “You are what you eat”
• French vs. US-American relations to food
• Quality vs quantity
• Individual vs social
• (Nemeroff & Rozin, 1989; Rozin et al., 2011; Bellows et al., 2010)

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background (cont.)

• Persistence of culinary traditions among immigrants (Almerico, 2014; Goode et al., 1984)
• Heated debate over language- “gravy”, “sauce”, “sugo”?

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background (cont.)

• Food Choice: Availability & Liking
• Models of Food Choice
  • Food Choice Process Model (Furst et al., 1996)
    • Safety, convenience, comfort, sensory appeal…
  • The Eating Motivations Survey (Renner et al., 2012)
    • Pleasure, habits, tradition, social image…
• In psychology, relatively little focus on meaning
  • Notable exception: Food-Related Lifestyle Brunsø, Grunert, and colleagues
    • Involvement, Innovation, Responsibility
    • (Rozin, 1999; Brunsø & Grunert, 1995; Brunsø et al., 2021; Grunert, 2020)

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background (cont.)

• Meaning-making is central to human life
• Food occupies a central, but varied role (Heine et al., 2006; Rozin et al., 2019)
• Adapted from Rozin, Ruby, & Cohen, 2019; based on 2016 Euromonitor data

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background (cont.)

• Growing appeals to values in food advertising
• VALUES MATTER

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background (cont.)

• Naomi Arbit
• Paul Rozin
• (Arbit et al., 2017)

The Meaning of Food in Life: Background (cont.)

• The meaning of food in life represents the degree to which people feel and comprehend their relationship with their food…
• as having significance beyond the immediate demands of the situation…
• and as connected to their larger life-world.
• (Arbit et al., 2017)

MFL USA Sample

• Demographics of Study Participants.
• Source Arbit et al. (2017)

MFL Items (Arbit et al., 2017)

Moral

• I care about the impact of my food choice on the world
• When I eat food I think about where it came from
• I eat in a way that expresses care for the world

Social

• Food is closely tied to my relationships with others
• When I eat, I feel connected to the people I am eating with
• Sharing food with others makes me feel closer to them

Sacred

• What I eat is a reflection of my spiritual beliefs
• From a spiritual perspective, some foods are better than others
• My food choices are a way for me to connect with the sacred

Aesthetic

• Preparing a good meal is like making a work of art
• Eating a good meal is an aesthetic experience, like going to a good concert or reading a good novel
• I can appreciate the beauty of a dish even if I do not like it

Health

• I get satisfaction from knowing that the food I eat is good for my health
• I feel that nourishing my body is a meaningful activity
• I eat in a way that expresses care for my body

How much do the 5 domains of Meaning of Food in Life describe you?

• I eat in a way that expresses care for the world
• Food is closely tied to my relationships with others
• What I eat is a reflection of my spiritual beliefs
• Preparing a good meal is like making a work of art
• I feel that nourishing my body is a meaningful activity
• Scale: Strongly disagree to Strongly agree

MFL: Overall Endorsement (USA)

• Mean Score (Arbit et al., 2017)
• Moral, Social, Sacred, Aesthetic, Health

MFL: Relationships (Arbit et al., 2017)

Moral

• Lower meat intake
• More local & organic
• Willingness to Pay: Animal & Environmental Welfare
• Better subjective health

Sacred

• Similar to moral; ~1/2 relationship strength
• Perhaps because this meaning rather low in USA?

Social

• More response to external eating cues
• More local & organic

Aesthetic

• Similar to social
• Higher in openness to experience

Health

• Less fast food, candy, & soda
• More fruit & vegetables
• More water
• Better subjective health
• Lower meat intake

MFL: Australia

• Initial development only with US-Americans
• Does the scale structure replicate in another culture?
• Do similar relationships emerge?

MFL: Australia (cont.)

• Mid-2018
• Targeted social media posts: Aussies 18+
• N = 323
• 80% women, 19% men, 1 % non-binary
• M{age} = 29.20, SD{age} = 13.56

MFL: Australia (cont.)

• Accessibility Remoteness Index Australia 2006
• ARIA+ and ARIA++ are indices of remoteness derived from measures of road distance between populated localities and service centers.
  • These road distance measures are then used to generate a remoteness score for any location in Australia.

MFL: Australia (cont.)

• 5-factor structure largely replicated, except:
  • Food is a way to connect with my cultural traditions
  • Making food for others is a main way I show care for them
  • I can appreciate the beauty of a dish even if I do not like it

MFL: Around the World

• http://www.health.uni-konstanz.de/traditional-modern-eating

MFL: Around the World (cont.)

• Stratified purposive sampling, Nov 2017-2018
• People lived most of life/childhood in country/region
• Focused on younger (18-40) and older (55+) adults
• Larger study on traditional & modern eating
• Online surveys in all 10 countries
• Paper & pencil surveys in all 10 countries
• Face-to-face interviews in rural Ghana
• Administered in local language(s)
• All materials back-translated (Sproesser et al., 2019; 2022)
• Part of the same larger project as this week’s prescribed reading
• Yes, we will ask about the reading in the Exam

MFL: Around the World (cont.)

| Country | N | M{age} ($SD{age}) | % female |
| :------ | :-: | :------------------------: | :------- |
| Brazil | 847 | 42.40 (18.59) | 58 |
| China | 408 | 44.89 (19,83) | 51 |
| France | 127 | 47.87 (19.69) | 50 |
| Germany | 223 | 49.86 (19.13) | 60 |
| Ghana | 142 | 45.95 (21.55) | 51 |
| India | 569 | 44.84 (20.51) | 49 |
| Japan | 333 | 47.71 (21.72) | 53 |
| Mexico | 731 | 43.25 (16.37) | 64 |
| Turkey | 108 | 45.40 (20.51) | 51 |
| USA | 415 | 45.99 (19.30) | 52 |
| All | 3903| 44.83 (19.32) | 55 |

MFL: Around the World (cont.)

• Entire sample- full replication of factor structure
• France, Germany, Japan, Mexico: exact match
• USA, Brazil, Ghana, India: 1-2 items different
• Turkey: Social items may split into two factors?
• China: Only 4 factors; health & aesthetic combined?

MFL: Around the World (cont.)

• Mean Factor Score
• Moral, Social, Sacred, Aesthetic, Health
• (Ruby et al., in prep)

MFL: Around the World (cont.)

• (Ruby et al., in prep)
• Green cells indicate a significant, positive relationship
• Red cells indicate a significant, negative relationship

MFL: Around the World (cont.)

• Mean Factor Score
• Moral, Social, Sacred, Aesthetic, Health
• Omnivore, Omnivore w/ Few Restrictions, Partial Vegetarian, Vegetarian, Vegan
• (Ruby et al., in prep)

Food & Sustainability

• Food and resource use
• Attitudes toward "alternative proteins"
• Perceptions of those who eat alternative proteins

Animals Eaten

• 1. 094 Tiere auf dem Teller
• Deutscher Durchschnittsverbrauch im Laufe des Lebens
• 37 Enten
• 4 Rinder
• 4 Schafe
• 12 Ganse
• 46 Schweine
• 945 Hiihner
• 46 Puten

Meat Waste

• FLEISCH UND WURST FÜR DIE ABFALLTONNE
• Schlachtungen in Deutschland. 1 Million Tiere pro Symbol, 2011/12

Protein Transition

• Shift toward plant-based diet (UN, 2010)
• Concerns about impact of meat consumption
  • Land usage / efficiency
  • Pollution
  • Health
  • Animal welfare
  • Human welfare
• Current consumption incompatible with population growth
• Some want to keep eating animal protein, but mitigate the impact on sustainability
• (Foer, 2009; Pew Commission, 2008; Roberts, 2008; Schiesserl & Schwagerl, 2008; Willett et al. 2019)

Insects as Food

• FIGURE 5.1


• Efficiencies of production of conventional meat and crickets
  

• Production of GHGs per kg of mass gain
• Source: Oonincx et al., 2010.

Insects as Food (cont.)

• Land use (m^2)
• Source: Oonincx and de Boer, 2012.

Insects as Food (cont.)

• Eaten by many (> 1 billion people)
• Major source of nutrition
• Complete protein
• Unsaturated fat
• Minerals (e.g., calcium, iron)

Insects as Food (cont.)

• Recorded edible insect species, by country

Insects as Food (cont.)

• Low entry requirements
  • Technology
  • Land
  • Capital

Insects are Disgusting

• Insects considered offensive because of their nature
• Disgust is explicit and implicit (IAT)
• Contaminating (even brief contact)
• Not fully present until 4-5 years of age
• Animals as food are disgusting
• Aversion to eating “ugly” animals
• (Angyal, 1941; Fessler & Navarrete, 2003; Rozin & Fallon, 1987; Ruby & Heine, 2012)

Insects are Disgusting (cont.)

• (Rozin, 1986)

Insects are Disgusting (cont.)

• (Rozin, 1986)
• Heat sterlised plastic candle holder
• Heat sterilised cockroach

Why are Insects Disgusting?

• “It was a brave man that first ate an oyster.” ~Jonathan Swift
• Spread of sushi outside Japan
• Lobsters: Delicacy or cause of riots?

Why are Insects Disgusting? (cont.)

Perceptions of Insect Eating

• Salads
• Los Tacos

Perceptions of Insect Eating (cont.)

• Noma (København)
• Ants in Herb Sauce

Attitudes Toward Insects as Food

• (Baker et al., 2018; Hartmann, et al., 2015; Ruby et al., 2015; Schösler et al., 2012)
• Often rejected as disgusting or inappropriate
• Predicted by food neophobia, sensation seeking, risk taking
• Men more willing than women
• Willingness: USA > India; China > Germany

Attitudes Toward Insects as Food (cont.)

• (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Gmuer et al., 2016; Hartmann et al., 2015; Ruby et al., 2015; Homann et al.; Wilkinson et al., 2018)
• Preference for crispy textures & familiar tastes
• Preference for foods made w/ insect flour
• Tasting  greater willingness
• Culturally robust (Italy, Kenya, Belgium)

Attitudes Toward Insects as Food (cont.)

• (Menozzi et al., 2017; Pambo et al., 2018; Ruby et al., 2015; Sogari, 2015; Verneau et al., 2016)
• Beliefs about insect eating important
  • Good for environment
  • Good for health
• Beliefs can be changed relatively easily
  • Video intervention  Greater willingness
  • Written information  Better expected sensory attributes

Study: Insects as Food in USA and India (Ruby & Rozin, 2019)

• 1) What is people’s level of acceptance of insects as food?
• 2) How strongly do people agree with commonly cited risks and benefits of eating insects?
• 3) Do people’s beliefs about eating insects cluster into discrete factors, and does the strength of these beliefs vary by gender and country?
• 4) What substantial country differences (Americans vs. Indians) are there in beliefs and acceptance?
• 5) How do these beliefs about eating insects, or prior food experiences, predict overall acceptance of insects as food?
• 6) What is the relationship between acceptance of sushi (a food that often initially elicits disgust) and acceptance of insects?

Insect Study: Participants (Ruby & Rozin, 2019)

• Mechanical Turk
  • USA N = 275 (55% women, Mage = 35.9, SDage = 12.95)
  • India N = 201 (34% women, Mage = 32.0, SDage = 9.72)
• Acceptability of Insects as Food
• Protected Value Violation
• Beliefs About Eating Insects
• Past Dietary Behavior

Insect Study: Willingness to Eat (Ruby & Rozin, 2019)

• How willing would you be to taste ?
  • 1 I would never eat it under any conditions.
  • 2 I would eat it only if my survival depended on it.
  • 3 I am unsure if I would ever consume it.
  • 4 I could be persuaded to consume it.
  • 5 I would be glad to consume it.

Insect Study: Willingness to Eat (Ruby & Rozin, 2019) (cont.)

• USA α = .94; India α = .78
• Taco, Lollipop, Dosa

Insect Study: Willingness to Eat (Ruby & Rozin, 2019) (cont.)

• Highest acceptable % mealworm flour:
• 0% 0.1% 1% 5% 10% ≥ 25%

Insect Study: Willingness to Eat (Ruby & Rozin, 2019) (cont.)

• α > .90 for both countries
• Cookie, Paratha
• Favourite Dish ?

Insect Study: Promotion (Ruby & Rozin, 2019)

Scale

• -100 Disagree strongly to 100 Agree strongly
• 1) The government should promote insect eating.
• 2) The United Nations should issue a statement discouraging insect consumption (R).
• 3) Universities should research ways to promote insect eating.
• 4) Doctors should endorse the safety of insect eating.
• 5) Nutritionists should discourage insect eating (R).
• 6) Businesses should sell insect foods.
• USA α = .90; India α = .81

Insect Study: Acceptance

• Americans: 82% willing to eat insects in general
• Indians: 34% willing to eat insects in general
• Source: Ruby & Rozin (2019)

Insect Study: Beliefs

Factor and Loadings

Insect Study: Perceived Benefits

• Less Space, Less Pollution, More Efficient, Nutritious, High Protein, Pleasant Taste
• USA, India
• Adapted from Ruby & Rozin (2019)

Insect Study: Perceived Risks

• Allergic Reaction, Microbes, Toxins, Chemicals, Disease
• USA, India
• Adapted from Ruby & Rozin (2019)

Insect Study: Sushi Intake

• How often have you eaten sushi?
  • 0 (Never), 1 (Once), 2 (A Few Times), 3 (Many Times)

Insect Study: Acceptance in USA

• Public domain / CC0 license
• Disgust, Benefits, Sushi Intake
• Insect Eating Acceptance
• adj. R^2 = .76

Insect Study: Acceptance in India

• Public domain / CC0 license
• Disgust, Benefits, Sushi Intake, Religion
• Insect Eating Acceptance
• adj. R^2 = .43

Insect Study: Summary

• Willingness to eat insects higher among Americans and men than Indians and women
• Agreement highest for environmental benefits of eating insects, and risk of allergic reaction
• Beliefs about eating insects cluster neatly into Risks, Benefits, Disgust, Suffering, & Religion
• Americans higher in Benefits and lower in Risks
• Benefits, Disgust, and sushi intake strong predictors of acceptance in both countries

Perceptions of Insect Eating

• Data collected in 2016 via survey panel in German-speaking part of Switzerland
• N = 598 (M_{age}$$ = 45, 52% women, 48% men, 42% tertiary ed)
• “On the way home from work, an approximately 35-year-old woman (man) goes grocery shopping for dinner. She (he) uses the shopping list below as a memory aid. Read the shopping list, and try to form an impression of what kind of person she (he) is. Please spontaneously rate her (his) characteristics using the adjective pairs below. This question is concerned with impressions. There are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers”.
• (Hartmann et al., 2017)

Perceptions of Insect Eating (cont.)

• Christina Hartmann
• Michael Siegrist
• (Hartmann et al., 2017)

Perceptions of Insect Eating (cont.)

• Shopping list - beef (n=201)
• Orange juice
• Apples
• Tomatoes
• Vanilla ice cream
• Beef burgers
• Potatoes
• (Hartmann et al., 2017)

Perceptions of Insect Eating (cont.)

• Rated on 16 attributes, adapted from Saher et al. (2014)
  • 1 immoral to 7 moral
  • 1 boring to 7 interesting
• Effect of target gender not significant, so collapsed and looked at effects of shopping list type
• (Hartmann et al., 2017)

Perceptions of Insect Eating (cont.)

• Insects: more imaginative, brave, interesting
• Insects & veg: more health conscious, environmentally friendly, educated, and athletic
• Veg: more disciplined and animal-loving, less tolerant
• (Hartmann et al., 2017)

Question

• Ruby and Rozin (2019) found that the strongest predictors of American and Indian participants acceptance of eating insects were Disgust and .
  • a) Religiosity
  • b) Perceived Benefits of Eating Insects
  • c) Perceived Risks of Eating Insects
  • d) Frequency of Sushi Intake