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Operant Conditioning
Overview of Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is a form of associative learning in which behavior is modified through reinforcement or punishment.
It establishes that behaviors become more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer and less likely if followed by a punishment.
The key foundational theories in understanding operant conditioning include those established by Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner.
Classical Conditioning
Definition: Classical conditioning is a learning process that facilitates prediction, allowing an individual to anticipate a specific outcome based on the occurrence of a preceding event.
Important Insight: The relationship established is when event A happens, the individual begins anticipating event B.
Foundations of Conditioning
Edward Thorndike
Response to Early Theories: Thorndike responded to an earlier belief that animals make rational choices by considering all options in new situations.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
Principle: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, whereas behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Simplification: Good outcomes lead to increased behavior; unfavorable outcomes lead to decreased behavior.
B.F. Skinner
Background: B.F. Skinner is a renowned behavior psychologist known for his research on operant conditioning.
Expansion on Thorndike: Skinner expanded upon Thorndike’s Law of Effect by conducting extensive research in conditioned environments.
Operant Chambers (Skinner Boxes)
Definition: These are specialized chambers designed to contain animals and record their responses to various conditioned stimuli. This method allows researchers to explore the principles of operant conditioning in a controlled setting.
Types of Reinforcements and Punishments
Reinforcement
Definition: Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of the behavior that it follows.
Types of Reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to condition a behavior, leading to behavior increase.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to condition a behavior, also leading to behavior increase.
Punishment
Definition: Punishment is any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of the behavior that it follows.
Types of Punishment:
Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.
Examples of Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Example 1: A child is given candy for cleaning their room.
Example 2: A teacher awards stickers to students who perform well on an exam.
Negative Reinforcement
Example 1: A child is relieved of a time restriction on video games when they clean their room.
Example 2: A teacher waives homework requirements for a well-performing student.
Positive Punishment
Example: A child is spanked for refusing to clean their room.
Negative Punishment
Example 1: A child loses dessert for failing to clean their room.
Example 2: A student loses the privilege of choosing their seat for not performing well on an exam.
Research on Operant Conditioning
Key Studies
Wacker et al. (2017): Documented a 90% reduction in self-destructive behavior among children with developmental delays through operant conditioning emphasizing effective communication skills.
Bushman (2019): Participants playing first-person shooter (FPS) games exhibiting headshot rewards showed increased aiming accuracy for headshots in real-life situations.
Spix (2023): Women conditioned to avoid sweet foods through operant conditioning exhibited increased avoidance of such items even after punishments ceased, indicating the impact of conditioning on food avoidance disorders.
Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
Definition: An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies biological needs. No prior learning is needed to desire it (e.g. food, water).
Secondary Reinforcers
Definition: A stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer. This type requires learning to desire it (e.g. money, grades).
Shaping Behavior
Definition: Reinforcers guide behavior towards closer approximations of the desired behavior. This involves rewarding steps toward the end goal rather than waiting for the final behavior.
Reinforcement Schedules
Importance
Reinforcement schedules dictate how often a behavior must be reinforced for it to become conditioned.
Types of Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered every time the desired behavior occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement is given intermittently rather than continuously.
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a consistent number of responses. (Example: A child receives candy for every three math problems completed.)
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. (Example: A child receives candy after solving various math problems at random intervals.)
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a specific time period. (Example: A child receives candy for every half-hour spent on math problems.)
Variable Interval: Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals. (Example: A child receives candy occasionally when the parent observes them working on math problems.)
Skinner's Research Findings
Graph displays response patterns for different schedules of reinforcement:
Fixed ratio and variable ratio lead to varying rates of responses.
Fixed interval shows rapid response rates as the time for reinforcement approaches; variable interval maintains steady responses.
Accidental Conditioning
Superstitious Behavior
Definition: The phenomenon where individuals repeat behaviors that are closely followed by reinforcement, even when there is no direct causative relationship.
Reflective Question: "What’s your superstition?"
Allan et al. (2020): Research linked superstitious behaviors to an increased sense of control among elite athletes.
Extinction of Conditioning
Instinctive Drift
Definition: The phenomenon where learned behavior gradually reverts to biologically predisposed patterns when reinforcement is not consistently provided.
Example: A dog trained to sit may eventually begin digging while sitting due to its instinctual behavior; raccoons trained to exchange tokens for food may wash the tokens due to their natural behaviors.
Learned Helplessness
Definition: The overarching sense of hopelessness and passive resignation developed when an individual feels incapable of avoiding persistent negative events.
Example: An individual may feel a lack of control over outcomes and thus may become indifferent to their efforts.